Class XII Biology Exam Suggestions

Unit 1: Reproduction (16 Marks)

• Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants:
  • Key Concepts: Flower structure, development of male/female gametophytes, pollination (types, agencies, examples), outbreeding devices, pollen-pistil interaction, artificial hybridisation, double fertilisation, post-fertilisation events (endosperm, embryo, seed, fruit formation), special modes (apomixis, parthenocarpy, polyembryony). Significance of seed dispersal and fruit formation.
  • Important Topics:
    • Pre-fertilisation structures and events: Microsporangium structure, T.S. of anther, microsporogenesis, pollen grain development/viability/economic importance. Pistil structure, megasporangium (L.S. anatropous ovule), megasporogenesis, female gametophyte development.
    • Pollination: Types (autogamy, chasmogamy, cleistogamy, geitonogamy, xenogamy). Adaptations in flowers for wind, water, insects. Advantages of self/cross-pollination. Contrivances for prevention of self-pollination. Pollen-pistil interaction (incompatibility/compatibility, fertilisation events, artificial hybridisation procedure - emasculation, bagging, significance in plant breeding).
    • Double Fertilisation: Definition of triple fusion and double fertilisation, significance. Changes in ovary/ovule for seed/fruit formation. Apomixis, polyembryony, parthenocarpy (brief explanation). Fruit classification (true/false), L.S. of typical fruit (mango, coconut). Internal structure of dicot (bean) and monocot (maize) seeds. Albuminous/non-albuminous seeds (definition, differences, examples). Significance of seed/fruit formation. Significance of seed dispersal.
    • Post-fertilisation events: Embryo formation (monocot/dicot). Types of endosperm (cellular, nuclear, helobial). Perisperm definition.
• Human Reproduction:
  • Key Concepts: Male/female reproductive systems, microscopic anatomy of testis/ovary, gametogenesis (spermatogenesis, oogenesis), menstrual cycle, fertilisation, embryo development (blastocyst formation, implantation), pregnancy, placenta formation (elementary idea), parturition (elementary idea), lactation (elementary idea).
  • Important Topics: Organs of male/female reproductive system and their functions. Internal structure of testis/ovary. Gametogenesis (spermiogenesis, spermiation), oogenesis. Hormonal control of gametogenesis. Sperm/ovum structure. Menstrual cycle (phases, hormone action, differences between oestrous/menstrual cycle, menarche, menopause). Physico-chemical events during fertilisation, implantation. Embryonic development up to blastocyst formation (important features, time period). Placenta functions. Parturition. Lactation (hormonal control, importance).
• Reproductive Health:
  • Key Concepts: Need for reproductive health, prevention of STDs. Birth control (need, methods, contraception, MTP). Amniocentesis. Infertility and ART (elementary idea).
  • Important Topics: Reproductive health definition, programs (family planning, RCH). Population explosion (government role, contraceptives - natural, artificial barriers, IUDs, oral pills, spermicidal agents, implants, surgical methods). MTP (definition, reasons). Amniocentesis (role in detecting genetic defects). ART (IVF, IUT, ZIFT, ICSI, GIFT, AI, IUI - definition, application). Causes, symptoms, prevention of STDs (genital warts, herpes, hepatitis-B, AIDS, gonorrhoea, syphilis, chlamydiasis, trichomoniasis).

Unit 2: Genetics and Evolution (15 Marks)

• Principles of Inheritance and Variation:
  • Key Concepts: Heredity, variation. Mendelian inheritance, deviations from Mendelism (incomplete dominance, co-dominance, multiple alleles, pleiotropy). Polygenic inheritance. Chromosomal theory of inheritance. Sex determination. Linkage, crossing over. Mutation. Sex-linked inheritance. Mendelian disorders, chromosomal disorders in humans.
  • Important Topics: Heredity/variation explanation. Mendel's Principles (reasons for success, biological importance). Homologous chromosomes, autosomes, sex chromosomes. Alleles (dominant, recessive). Phenotype, genotype, homozygous, heterozygous. Monohybrid/dihybrid crosses. Back cross, test cross (definitions with Punnett square examples). Incomplete dominance (snapdragon). Co-dominance, multiple allelism (ABO blood group). Polygenic inheritance (skin colour). Pedigree charts (creation, interpretation). Pleiotropy (Phenylketonuria, starch synthesis in pea seeds). Chromosomal theory of inheritance. Sex determination (humans, birds, honey bees, grasshopper). Sex-linked inheritance (Drosophila - body/eye colour; human - haemophilia, colour blindness). Linkage, crossing over (definition, significance). Mutation (spontaneous, induced, gene - transition, transversion, frame-shift). Human genetic disorders (phenylketonuria, thalassaemia, colour blindness, sickle cell anaemia). Chromosomal disorders (Down's, Klinefelter's, Turner's syndrome).
• Molecular Basis of Inheritance:
  • Key Concepts: Search for genetic material. DNA/RNA structure. DNA packaging. DNA replication. Central dogma. Transcription. Genetic code. Translation. Regulation of gene expression (lac operon). Human genome project. DNA fingerprinting.
  • Important Topics: Eukaryotic chromosome structure (nucleosome). Properties of ideal genetic material (replicate, chemical stability, mutability, inheritability). Search for DNA as genetic material (Griffith's, Hershey-Chase, Avery-McLeod-McCarty experiments). Double helical model of DNA (Miescher, Watson-Crick, Wilkins, Franklin, Chargaff). Differences between DNA/RNA. Types of RNA (tRNA, mRNA, rRNA, snRNA, hnRNA). Central dogma. Reverse transcription (basic idea). DNA replication (enzymes - DNA polymerase, ligase; Meselson-Stahl, Taylor experiments). Transcription. Post-transcriptional processing (splicing, capping, tailing). Intron, exon, cistron, recon, muton. Monocistronic/polycistronic transcription unit (definitions). Genetic code (discovery, essential features, codon definition). Protein synthesis (translation in prokaryotes). Gene expression. Lac operon in E. coli. Human Genome Project (goal, methodologies - EST, Sequence Annotation; salient features, applications). DNA fingerprinting (technique, application, ethical issues).
• Evolution:
  • Key Concepts: Origin of life. Biological evolution and evidences (palaeontology, comparative anatomy, embryology, molecular). Darwin's contribution. Modern synthetic theory of evolution. Mechanism of evolution (variation, natural selection). Types of natural selection. Gene flow, genetic drift. Hardy-Weinberg's principle. Adaptive radiation. Human evolution.
  • Important Topics: Origin of life (abiogenesis, biogenesis, oxygen effect, reducing atmosphere). Important views (panspermia, spontaneous generation). Modern concept of origin of life. Oparin-Haldane theory (protobionts, coacervates). Miller-Urey experiment. Evidences of evolution: morphological (homologous/analogous organs - examples, convergent/divergent evolution, vestigial organs). Embryological (recapitulation theory, ontogeny/phylogeny differences). Palaeontological (fossils, radioactive carbon-dating). Geological time scale (dominant flora/fauna). Biogeographical. Molecular (genome similarity, universal genetic code). Darwin's finches, marsupials (adaptive radiation). Darwinism (salient features, Malthus contribution). Natural selection examples (giraffe neck, industrial melanism, mosquito resistance to DDT). Lederberg's replica plating experiment. Criticism of Darwinism. Neo-Darwinism (Modern Synthetic Theory). Gene migration/flow. Genetic drift (Founder's effect, bottle-neck effect). Mutation. Genetic recombination. Natural selection (directional, disruptive, stabilizing). Hugo de Vries theory of mutation. Hardy-Weinberg's principle (factors affecting equilibrium, numericals). Variation (causes). Human evolution (three features - cranial capacity, height, posture, dentition, social behaviour; Dryopithecus, Ramapithecus, Australopithecus, Homo habilis, erectus, neanderthalensis, Cro-magnon, Homo sapiens sapiens).

Unit 3: Biology and Human Welfare (14 Marks)

• Human Health and Diseases:
  • Key Concepts: Pathogens, parasites causing human diseases (viruses, bacteria, protozoans, helminths, fungi). Basic concepts of immunology. Vaccines. Cancer. HIV, AIDS. Adolescence, drug/alcohol abuse.
  • Important Topics: Communicable diseases (modes of transmission, causative agents, symptoms, prevention). Viral diseases (common cold, chikungunya, dengue). Bacterial diseases (typhoid - Widal test, pneumonia, diphtheria, plague). Protozoal diseases (amoebiasis, malaria - Plasmodium life cycle). Helmintic diseases (ascariasis, filariasis). Fungal (ringworms). Cancer (types - benign, malignant; causes, diagnosis, treatment - surgery, immunotherapy, radiotherapy; characteristics of cancer cells - contact inhibition loss, metastasis). Allergies, allergens (definition, general symptoms). Immunity (definition, types - innate - physical barriers, cellular, cytokine; acquired - active, passive, humoral, cell-mediated). Interferons (definition, source, function). Antibody molecule structure. Types of antibodies (IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD, IgE - function, occurrence). Vaccination, immunisation. Autoimmunity. Primary/secondary lymphoid organs/tissues. AIDS (causative agent HIV, transmission, diagnosis ELISA, symptoms, retrovirus replication diagram, prevention). Alcoholism, smoking (effects). Drugs (effects, sources - opioids, cannabinoids, cocaine, barbiturates). Addiction (reasons, prevention, control).
• Microbes in Human Welfare:
  • Key Concepts: Microbes in household food processing, industrial production, sewage treatment, energy generation, biocontrol agents, biofertilisers. Antibiotics.
  • Important Topics:
    • Household products: Lactobacillus (curd), Saccharomyces (bread), Propionibacterium (Swiss cheese).
    • Industrial products: Beverages (with/without distillation), antibiotics (Penicillin - discovery, use), organic acids, alcohols, enzymes (lipase, pectinase, protease, streptokinase - sources, uses). Cyclosporin-A, Statins.
    • Sewage treatment: Primary, secondary.
    • Biogas production: Methanogens, biogas plant, biogas composition, process.
    • Biocontrol agents: Ladybird, dragonfly, Bacillus thuringiensis, Trichoderma, Nucleopolyhedrovirus (Baculovirus).
    • Biofertilisers: Rhizobium, Azospirillum, Azotobacter, Glomus, Mycorrhiza, Cyanobacteria.
    • IPM. Harmful effects of chemical pesticides.

Unit 4: Biotechnology and its Applications (10 Marks)

• Biotechnology - Principles and Processes:
  • Key Concepts: Genetic Engineering (recombinant DNA technology). Definition, principles of biotechnology. Isolation of genomic DNA. Isolation of gene of interest. Steps of recombinant DNA formation. Cloning vectors. Methods of transfer of rDNA into competent host. Methods of selection of recombinants. Cloning of recombinants. Bioreactor. Downstream processing.
  • Important Topics: Definition, principles of biotechnology. Isolation of genomic DNA (bacteria/plant/animal cell, cell lysis). Isolation of gene of interest (electrophoresis). Steps of recombinant DNA formation. Restriction enzymes (EcoRI, HindII - discovery, nomenclature, features, role). Ligase role. Cloning vectors (features of good vector, examples - pBR322, Agrobacterium, retroviruses, BAC, YAC). Methods of transfer of rDNA into competent host (direct method - temperature shock, microinjection, gene gun). Methods of selection of recombinants (antibiotic resistance, insertional inactivation/blue-white selection). Cloning of recombinants (gene amplification - in vivo/in vitro PCR). Bioreactor (basic features, uses - stirred tank, sparged tank). Downstream processing.
• Biotechnology and its Applications:
  • Key Concepts: Applications in health, agriculture. Human insulin, vaccine production. Stem cell technology. Gene therapy. Genetically modified organisms. Bt crops. Transgenic animals. Biosafety issues. Biopiracy, biopatents.
  • Important Topics:
    • Agriculture: Micropropagation, somatic hybridisation (techniques for GM crops tolerant to abiotic stresses - cold, drought, salt, heat). Pest-resistant crops (Bt-crops, RNAi - Meloidogyne incognita). Crops with enhanced nutritional value (golden rice).
    • Medicine: Insulin, vaccine production. Stem cells (definition, application). Gene therapy (SCID treatment). Molecular diagnosis (PCR, ELISA - technique details not required). DNA/RNA probes.
    • Transgenic animals: Bioactive products (alpha-1-antitrypsin for emphysema, alpha-lactalbumin). Vaccine safety testing, chemical safety testing. Study of diseases.
    • Ethical Issues: GEAC role. Biopiracy (definition, examples - Basmati rice, turmeric). Biopatent.

Unit 5: Ecology and Environment (15 Marks)

• Organisms and Populations:
  • Key Concepts: Population, population interactions. Population attributes (growth, birth rate, death rate, age distribution).
  • Important Topics: Population definition. Population attributes: sex ratio, age distribution pyramids (human population). Population density (definition, natality, mortality, emigration, immigration, carrying capacity). Ways to measure population density. Calculation of natality/mortality. Population growth (factors affecting, exponential/logistic models - equations, graph, examples). Life history variations (reproductive fitness, examples). Population interactions (definition of mutualism, competition - interspecific, interference, competitive release, Gause's Principle of Competitive Exclusion; predation - adaptations to avoid; parasitism - ecto, endo, brood; commensalism, amensalism).
• Ecosystem:
  • Key Concepts: Ecosystems (patterns, components). Productivity, decomposition. Energy flow. Pyramids of number, biomass, energy.
  • Important Topics: Ecosystem definition, types. Ecosystem structure (brief idea - biotic, abiotic components). Pond ecosystem structure, function. Ecosystem functions: Productivity (GPP, NPP, secondary). Decomposition (fragmentation, leaching, catabolism, humification, mineralisation - factors affecting). Energy flow. Food chains (grazing, detritus). Food webs. Trophic levels. Ecological pyramids (energy, number, biomass). PAR definition. 10% Law. Standing crop, standing state.
• Biodiversity and its Conservation:
  • Key Concepts: Concept of biodiversity. Patterns of biodiversity. Importance of biodiversity. Loss of biodiversity. Biodiversity conservation. Hotspots, endangered organisms, extinction. Red Data Book. Biosphere reserves, national parks, sanctuaries, Ramsar sites.
  • Important Topics: Biodiversity definition, examples (species, ecosystem, genetic). Global biodiversity, species numbers (plants, invertebrates, vertebrates). Patterns of biodiversity (latitudinal gradients, species-area relationship - graph, equation). "Rivet popper hypothesis". Importance of species diversity to ecosystem (narrowly utilitarian, broadly utilitarian, ethical). Recently extinct organisms (dodo, quagga, Steller's Sea cow, thylacine, Bali/Caspian/Javan tiger subspecies). Causes of biodiversity loss (habitat loss/fragmentation, over-exploitation, alien species invasion, co-extinction). Biodiversity conservation: In-situ methods (protected areas - biosphere reserves, national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, sacred groves; ex-situ methods - captive breeding, zoo, botanical gardens, cryopreservation, wild life safari, seed banks, tissue culture). Definitions, examples. Hotspots, Ramsar sites, Red Data Book. Historic conventions (Earth Summit, World Summit - place, year, agenda). Numerical problems with illustrative examples.