Final Question Paper: Human Reproduction

Section A: Multiple Choice Questions (1 Mark Each)

1. Which of the following is the primary male sex organ? a) Vas deferens b) Epididymis c) Testis d) Prostate gland

2. The process of formation of sperms is called: a) Oogenesis b) Spermatogenesis c) Gametogenesis d) Fertilization

3. The female reproductive system includes: a) Ovaries, oviducts, uterus, vagina, external genitalia b) Testis, epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles c) Prostate gland, bulbourethral glands, urethra d) Mammary glands, fallopian tubes, cervix

4. Fertilization in humans normally occurs in the: a) Uterus b) Ovary c) Vagina d) Fallopian tube

5. The hormone responsible for the development of secondary sexual characteristics in males is: a) Estrogen b) Progesterone c) Testosterone d) Luteinizing hormone

6. The inner lining of the uterus is called the: a) Perimetrium b) Myometrium c) Endometrium d) Cervix

7. The process of release of ovum from the ovary is called: a) Menstruation b) Ovulation c) Implantation d) Parturition

8. The placenta is formed by the interdigitation of: a) Uterine tissue and fetal tissue b) Ovarian tissue and uterine tissue c) Fetal tissue and umbilical cord d) Maternal blood and fetal blood

9. The gestation period in humans is approximately: a) 6 months b) 9 months c) 12 months d) 3 months

10. The milk-producing glands in females are: a) Adrenal glands b) Thyroid glands c) Mammary glands d) Pituitary glands

11. The head of the sperm contains: a) Mitochondria b) Nucleus c) Centriole d) Cytoplasm

12. The acrosome of sperm contains: a) Enzymes for fertilization b) Mitochondria for energy c) Genetic material d) Tail for motility

13. The middle piece of the sperm contains: a) Nucleus b) Acrosome c) Mitochondria d) Tail

14. The process of sperm formation begins at: a) Birth b) Puberty c) Adulthood d) Old age

15. The cells that provide nourishment to the developing sperms are: a) Leydig cells b) Spermatogonia c) Sertoli cells d) Interstitial cells

16. The primary spermatocyte is: a) Haploid b) Diploid c) Triploid d) Tetraploid

17. How many sperms are formed from one primary spermatocyte? a) 1 b) 2 c) 3 d) 4

18. The process of conversion of spermatids into spermatozoa is called: a) Spermatogenesis b) Spermiogenesis c) Spermiation d) Oogenesis

19. The female gonad is the: a) Uterus b) Ovary c) Vagina d) Fallopian tube

20. The primary oocyte is: a) Haploid b) Diploid c) Triploid d) Tetraploid

21. The process of formation of ovum is called: a) Spermatogenesis b) Oogenesis c) Gametogenesis d) Fertilization

22. The first meiotic division of the primary oocyte is completed: a) Before birth b) At puberty c) After fertilization d) During ovulation

23. The secondary oocyte is released from the ovary at: a) Metaphase I b) Prophase I c) Metaphase II d) Anaphase II

24. The corpus luteum secretes: a) Estrogen b) Progesterone c) Testosterone d) Luteinizing hormone

25. The menstrual cycle typically lasts for: a) 14 days b) 21 days c) 28 days d) 35 days

26. The follicular phase of the menstrual cycle is characterized by: a) Growth of ovarian follicles b) Secretion of progesterone c) Breakdown of endometrium d) Ovulation

27. Ovulation is induced by a surge of: a) FSH b) LH c) Estrogen d) Progesterone

28. The luteal phase of the menstrual cycle is characterized by: a) Development of corpus luteum b) Growth of ovarian follicles c) Menstrual flow d) Ovulation

29. Implantation is the process of: a) Fertilization of ovum b) Attachment of blastocyst to uterine wall c) Release of ovum from ovary d) Formation of placenta

30. The outer layer of the blastocyst is called: a) Inner cell mass b) Trophoblast c) Embryoblast d) Zona pellucida

31. The inner cell mass differentiates into: a) Trophoblast b) Embryoblast c) Placenta d) Umbilical cord

32. The embryonic stage after implantation is called: a) Zygote b) Morula c) Blastocyst d) Gastrula

33. The three germ layers are formed during: a) Cleavage b) Implantation c) Gastrulation d) Organogenesis

34. The organ that connects the fetus to the uterine wall is the: a) Umbilical cord b) Placenta c) Amnion d) Chorion

35. The hormone secreted by the placenta is: a) hCG b) FSH c) LH d) Estrogen

36. The fluid-filled sac that surrounds the embryo is the: a) Chorion b) Amnion c) Yolk sac d) Allantois

37. The process of delivery of the fetus is called: a) Implantation b) Gestation c) Parturition d) Lactation

38. The hormone that stimulates uterine contractions during parturition is: a) Estrogen b) Progesterone c) Oxytocin d) Prolactin

39. The first milk produced after childbirth is called: a) Milk b) Colostrum c) Whey d) Casein

40. The male reproductive system consists of: a) A pair of testes, accessory ducts, glands, and external genitalia b) A pair of ovaries, oviducts, uterus, vagina, and external genitalia c) Mammary glands, fallopian tubes, cervix d) Prostate gland, bulbourethral glands, urethra

41. The testes are located in the scrotum because: a) It provides protection b) It maintains a lower temperature for spermatogenesis c) It provides nourishment d) It helps in sperm transport

42. The seminiferous tubules are lined by: a) Leydig cells b) Sertoli cells c) Spermatogonia d) Both b and c

43. The cells that synthesize and secrete testicular hormones (androgens) are: a) Sertoli cells b) Spermatogonia c) Leydig cells d) Primary spermatocytes

44. The male accessory ducts include: a) Rete testis, vasa efferentia, epididymis, vas deferens b) Seminal vesicles, prostate gland, bulbourethral glands c) Urethra, ejaculatory duct d) Seminiferous tubules, epididymis

45. The male accessory glands include: a) Seminal vesicles, prostate gland, bulbourethral glands b) Rete testis, vasa efferentia, epididymis c) Testis, epididymis d) Vas deferens, urethra

46. The seminal plasma is rich in: a) Fructose, calcium, and certain enzymes b) Glucose, sodium, and proteins c) Amino acids, potassium, and lipids d) Water, chloride, and vitamins

47. The female reproductive system consists of: a) A pair of ovaries, a pair of oviducts, a uterus, vagina, and external genitalia b) Testes, epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles c) Prostate gland, bulbourethral glands, urethra d) Mammary glands, fallopian tubes, cervix

48. The ovaries are connected to the pelvic wall and uterus by: a) Ligaments b) Tendons c) Muscles d) Bones

49. The oviducts are also known as: a) Uterus b) Vagina c) Fallopian tubes d) Cervix

50. The part of the fallopian tube closer to the ovary is the: a) Isthmus b) Ampulla c) Infundibulum d) Fimbriae

51. The finger-like projections of the infundibulum are called: a) Cilia b) Microvilli c) Fimbriae d) Villi

52. The uterus is also called the: a) Womb b) Birth canal c) Vagina d) Cervix

53. The uterus opens into the vagina through a narrow: a) Fundus b) Body c) Cervix d) Isthmus

54. The external genitalia in females include: a) Mons pubis, labia majora, labia minora, hymen, clitoris b) Vagina, cervix, uterus c) Ovaries, oviducts d) Mammary glands

55. The mammary glands are modified: a) Sebaceous glands b) Sweat glands c) Apocrine glands d) Endocrine glands

56. The process of gamete formation is called: a) Fertilization b) Implantation c) Gametogenesis d) Parturition

57. Spermatogonia are: a) Haploid b) Diploid c) Triploid d) Tetraploid

58. Secondary spermatocytes are: a) Haploid b) Diploid c) Triploid d) Tetraploid

59. Spermatids are: a) Haploid b) Diploid c) Triploid d) Tetraploid

60. The release of sperms from the seminiferous tubules is called: a) Spermatogenesis b) Spermiogenesis c) Spermiation d) Ejaculation

61. Oogonia are: a) Haploid b) Diploid c) Triploid d) Tetraploid

62. The primary oocyte grows in size and gets surrounded by a layer of granulosa cells to form the: a) Primary follicle b) Secondary follicle c) Tertiary follicle d) Graafian follicle

63. The fluid-filled cavity in the tertiary follicle is called the: a) Antrum b) Follicle c) Corpus luteum d) Zona pellucida

64. The secondary oocyte forms a new membrane called: a) Theca interna b) Theca externa c) Zona pellucida d) Corona radiata

65. The rupture of the Graafian follicle and release of the secondary oocyte is called: a) Menstruation b) Ovulation c) Implantation d) Parturition

66. The menstrual phase is characterized by: a) Secretion of LH b) Breakdown of endometrial lining c) Growth of follicles d) Ovulation

67. The proliferative phase is also called the: a) Menstrual phase b) Follicular phase c) Luteal phase d) Secretory phase

68. The secretory phase is also called the: a) Menstrual phase b) Follicular phase c) Luteal phase d) Proliferative phase

69. The fusion of male and female gametes is called: a) Implantation b) Gestation c) Fertilization d) Parturition

70. The fertilized egg is called a: a) Gamete b) Zygote c) Morula d) Blastocyst

71. The rapid mitotic divisions of the zygote are called: a) Gastrulation b) Organogenesis c) Cleavage d) Implantation

72. The solid ball of 8-16 cells formed after cleavage is called a: a) Zygote b) Blastocyst c) Morula d) Gastrula

73. The blastocyst gets embedded in the endometrium of the uterus during: a) Fertilization b) Cleavage c) Implantation d) Gastrulation

74. The finger-like projections appearing on the trophoblast after implantation are called: a) Villi b) Microvilli c) Chorionic villi d) Fimbriae

75. The chorionic villi and uterine tissue become interdigitated to form the: a) Umbilical cord b) Amnion c) Placenta d) Yolk sac

76. The placenta acts as an: a) Endocrine gland b) Exocrine gland c) Both a and b d) Neither a nor b

77. The umbilical cord connects the: a) Placenta to the uterus b) Fetus to the placenta c) Fetus to the uterus d) Mother to the fetus

78. The inner cell mass contains certain cells called: a) Trophoblast cells b) Stem cells c) Germ cells d) Somatic cells

79. The outer ectoderm, middle mesoderm, and inner endoderm are formed during: a) Cleavage b) Implantation c) Gastrulation d) Organogenesis

80. The period of development from conception to birth is called: a) Implantation b) Parturition c) Gestation d) Lactation

81. The signals for parturition originate from the: a) Placenta only b) Fully developed fetus only c) Both placenta and fully developed fetus d) Uterus only

82. The hormone that causes milk ejection is: a) Prolactin b) Oxytocin c) Estrogen d) Progesterone

83. The male reproductive organ that produces sperm and testosterone is the: a) Epididymis b) Vas deferens c) Testis d) Seminal vesicle

84. The coiled tube on the posterior side of the testis where sperm mature is the: a) Vas deferens b) Epididymis c) Rete testis d) Ejaculatory duct

85. The tube that carries sperm from the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct is the: a) Urethra b) Vas deferens c) Seminiferous tubule d) Vasa efferentia

86. The gland that secretes a thick, yellowish fluid containing fructose to nourish sperm is the: a) Prostate gland b) Bulbourethral gland c) Seminal vesicle d) Cowper's gland

87. The gland that secretes a milky, slightly acidic fluid that activates sperm is the: a) Seminal vesicle b) Bulbourethral gland c) Prostate gland d) Cowper's gland

88. The female reproductive organ that produces eggs and female hormones is the: a) Uterus b) Fallopian tube c) Ovary d) Vagina

89. The funnel-shaped part of the fallopian tube near the ovary is the: a) Isthmus b) Ampulla c) Infundibulum d) Fimbriae

90. The muscular organ where a fertilized egg implants and develops is the: a) Ovary b) Fallopian tube c) Uterus d) Vagina

91. The narrow opening between the uterus and the vagina is the: a) Fundus b) Cervix c) Isthmus d) Body

92. The external female genitalia collectively known as the vulva include: a) Mons pubis, labia majora, labia minora, clitoris b) Vagina, cervix, uterus c) Ovaries, fallopian tubes d) Urethra, anus

93. The erectile tissue in the female external genitalia, homologous to the penis, is the: a) Labia minora b) Hymen c) Clitoris d) Mons pubis

94. The process of egg formation in females is called: a) Spermatogenesis b) Oogenesis c) Gametogenesis d) Fertilization

95. The primordial germ cells in females differentiate into: a) Primary oocytes b) Secondary oocytes c) Oogonia d) Polar bodies

96. The primary oocytes are arrested in which stage of meiosis? a) Prophase I b) Metaphase I c) Anaphase I d) Telophase I

97. The mature ovarian follicle is called the: a) Primary follicle b) Secondary follicle c) Tertiary follicle d) Graafian follicle

98. After ovulation, the ruptured Graafian follicle transforms into the: a) Corpus albicans b) Corpus luteum c) Corpus spongiosum d) Corpus cavernosum

99. The hormone that maintains the uterine lining during pregnancy is: a) Estrogen b) Progesterone c) LH d) FSH

100. The cessation of menstruation in females is called: a) Menarche b) Menopause c) Ovulation d) Puberty

Section B: 1 Mark Short Answer Questions

1. Define gametogenesis.
2. What is the function of the scrotum?
3. Name the cells that secrete androgens.
4. What is spermiogenesis?
5. Where does spermatogenesis occur?
6. Name the male accessory glands.
7. What is seminal plasma?
8. Name the female primary sex organ.
9. What are fimbriae?
10. What is the other name for the uterus?
11. Define menstruation.
12. What is ovulation?
13. Name the hormones involved in the regulation of the menstrual cycle.
14. What is implantation?
15. Define gestation period.
16. What is parturition?
17. What is colostrum?
18. Name the two types of cells lining the seminiferous tubules.
19. What is the role of Sertoli cells?
20. What is the acrosome?
21. What is the significance of the middle piece of sperm?
22. Define oogenesis.
23. What is a Graafian follicle?
24. What is the corpus luteum?
25. Name the phases of the menstrual cycle.
26. What is the role of LH surge?
27. What is the zona pellucida?
28. Define cleavage.
29. What is a morula?
30. What is a blastocyst?
31. What is the trophoblast?
32. What is the inner cell mass?
33. What are chorionic villi?
34. What is the function of the placenta?
35. Name a hormone secreted by the placenta.
36. What is the amnion?
37. What is the umbilical cord?
38. Name the three germ layers.
39. What is organogenesis?
40. What is lactation?
41. Name the male accessory ducts.
42. What is the rete testis?
43. What are vasa efferentia?
44. What is the epididymis?
45. What is the vas deferens?
46. What is the ejaculatory duct?
47. What is the urethra in males?
48. Name the parts of the female external genitalia.
49. What is the mons pubis?
50. What are labia majora?
51. What are labia minora?
52. What is the hymen?
53. What is the clitoris?
54. What are mammary glands?
55. What is menarche?
56. What is menopause?
57. What is the primary follicle?
58. What is the secondary follicle?
59. What is the tertiary follicle?
60. What is the antrum?
61. What is the corona radiata?
62. What is the first polar body?
63. What is the second polar body?
64. What is the significance of unequal cytokinesis in oogenesis?
65. What is the role of FSH in males?
66. What is the role of LH in males?
67. What is the role of FSH in females?
68. What is the role of LH in females?
69. What is the role of estrogen in the menstrual cycle?
70. What is the role of progesterone in the menstrual cycle?
71. What is the significance of the corpus luteum?
72. What happens if fertilization does not occur?
73. What happens to the corpus luteum during pregnancy?
74. What is the decidua?
75. What is the function of the umbilical arteries and vein?
76. What is the role of relaxin during pregnancy and parturition?
77. What is the fetal ejection reflex?
78. What is the role of oxytocin in lactation?
79. What is the significance of breastfeeding?
80. What is the difference between spermatogenesis and spermiogenesis?
81. What is the difference between primary and secondary sexual characteristics?
82. What is the significance of the blood-testis barrier?
83. What is capacitation of sperm?
84. What is the cortical reaction?
85. What is polyspermy?
86. What is the significance of the zona pellucida in fertilization?
87. What is the difference between morula and blastocyst?
88. What is gastrulation?
89. What is the significance of germ layers?
90. What is the difference between embryonic period and fetal period?
91. What is the role of hCG during pregnancy?
92. What is morning sickness?
93. What is quickening?
94. What is the difference between true labor and false labor?
95. What are the stages of labor?
96. What is episiotomy?
97. What is a Cesarean section?
98. What is infertility?
99. What are assisted reproductive technologies (ART)?
100. What is IVF-ET?

Section C: 2 Marks Questions

1. Describe the structure of a human sperm.
2. Explain the role of Leydig cells and Sertoli cells in spermatogenesis.
3. Trace the path of sperm from the seminiferous tubules to the urethra.
4. Describe the functions of the male accessory glands.
5. Explain the structure of a human ovum.
6. Describe the process of oogenesis up to the formation of the primary oocyte.
7. Explain the changes in the ovarian follicle during the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle.
8. Describe the hormonal regulation of spermatogenesis.
9. Explain the hormonal regulation of the menstrual cycle, focusing on FSH and LH.
10. Describe the events that occur during ovulation.
11. Explain the changes in the uterus during the menstrual cycle.
12. Describe the process of fertilization in humans.
13. Explain the significance of the acrosome reaction and cortical reaction during fertilization.
14. Describe the process of cleavage and morula formation.
15. Explain the structure of a blastocyst and its significance in implantation.
16. Describe the process of implantation.
17. Explain the formation and functions of the placenta.
18. Describe the role of the umbilical cord.
19. Explain the process of gastrulation and the formation of germ layers.
20. Describe the major events that occur during the first trimester of pregnancy.
21. Explain the major events that occur during the second trimester of pregnancy.
22. Describe the major events that occur during the third trimester of pregnancy.
23. Explain the hormonal control of parturition.
24. Describe the process of lactation and the hormones involved.
25. Explain the significance of colostrum for the newborn.
26. Differentiate between spermatogenesis and oogenesis.
27. Compare and contrast the male and female reproductive systems.
28. Describe the structure and function of the seminiferous tubules.
29. Explain the role of the epididymis.
30. Describe the structure and function of the fallopian tubes.
31. Explain the structure and function of the uterus.
32. Describe the structure and function of the ovary.
33. Explain the role of the hypothalamus and pituitary gland in reproductive hormone regulation.
34. Describe the feedback mechanisms involved in the regulation of male reproductive hormones.
35. Explain the feedback mechanisms involved in the regulation of female reproductive hormones.
36. Describe the events that lead to the formation of a secondary oocyte.
37. Explain the fate of the corpus luteum if fertilization occurs and if it does not.
38. Describe the changes in the endometrium during the secretory phase.
39. Explain the process of capacitation of sperm.
40. Describe the block to polyspermy.
41. Explain the process of blastulation.
42. Describe the differentiation of the inner cell mass.
43. Explain the formation of the amniotic cavity and yolk sac.
44. Describe the development of the chorion and amnion.
45. Explain the role of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) during pregnancy.
46. Describe the physiological changes in the mother during pregnancy.
47. Explain the stages of labor.
48. Describe the importance of breastfeeding for the mother and baby.
49. Explain the causes of male infertility.
50. Describe the causes of female infertility.
51. Explain the principle of In Vitro Fertilization (IVF).
52. Describe the process of Zygote Intrafallopian Transfer (ZIFT).
53. Explain the process of Gamete Intrafallopian Transfer (GIFT).
54. Describe the technique of Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection (ICSI).
55. Explain the ethical considerations related to Assisted Reproductive Technologies (ART).
56. Describe the role of prostaglandins in reproduction.
57. Explain the significance of the blood-testis barrier.
58. Describe the process of spermiation.
59. Explain the role of inhibin in male reproductive regulation.
60. Describe the structure of a mature ovarian follicle.
61. Explain the formation of the corpus albicans.
62. Describe the hormonal changes during menopause.
63. Explain the physiological effects of estrogen in females.
64. Describe the physiological effects of progesterone in females.
65. Explain the role of relaxin during pregnancy.
66. Describe the process of embryonic stem cell differentiation.
67. Explain the concept of totipotency and pluripotency.
68. Describe the development of the neural tube.
69. Explain the formation of somites.
70. Describe the development of the heart.
71. Explain the development of the limbs.
72. Describe the formation of the face.
73. Explain the development of the brain.
74. Describe the development of the eyes and ears.
75. Explain the development of the digestive system.
76. Describe the development of the respiratory system.
77. Explain the development of the urinary system.
78. Describe the development of the reproductive organs.
79. Explain the process of sex determination in humans.
80. Describe the role of the SRY gene.
81. Explain the concept of fraternal and identical twins.
82. Describe the formation of conjoined twins.
83. Explain the causes of ectopic pregnancy.
84. Describe the symptoms of preeclampsia.
85. Explain the causes and symptoms of gestational diabetes.
86. Describe the importance of prenatal care.
87. Explain the different types of birth control methods.
88. Describe the mechanism of action of oral contraceptives.
89. Explain the mechanism of action of intrauterine devices (IUDs).
90. Describe the process of vasectomy.
91. Explain the process of tubal ligation.
92. Describe the common sexually transmitted infections (STIs).
93. Explain the methods of preventing STIs.
94. Describe the symptoms and complications of Chlamydia.
95. Explain the symptoms and complications of Gonorrhea.
96. Describe the symptoms and complications of Syphilis.
97. Explain the symptoms and complications of Herpes.
98. Describe the symptoms and complications of HIV/AIDS.
99. Explain the importance of sexual health education.
100. Describe the ethical considerations in human reproduction.

Section D: 3 Marks Broad Questions

1. Describe the detailed structure of the male reproductive system with a labeled diagram.
2. Explain the process of spermatogenesis in detail, including the different cell types and meiotic divisions.
3. Describe the hormonal control of the male reproductive system, including the roles of GnRH, LH, FSH, and testosterone.
4. Describe the detailed structure of the female reproductive system with a labeled diagram.
5. Explain the process of oogenesis in detail, including the different stages and meiotic divisions.
6. Describe the hormonal control of the female reproductive system, including the roles of GnRH, FSH, LH, estrogen, and progesterone.
7. Explain the events of the menstrual cycle, correlating the ovarian and uterine events with hormonal changes.
8. Describe the process of fertilization, including the events leading to the fusion of gametes and the prevention of polyspermy.
9. Explain the early embryonic development from zygote to implantation, including cleavage, morula, and blastocyst formation.
10. Describe the formation, structure, and functions of the placenta.
11. Explain the process of gastrulation and the significance of the three germ layers in embryonic development.
12. Describe the major developmental events that occur during the first, second, and third trimesters of human pregnancy.
13. Explain the process of parturition, including the hormonal signals and the stages of labor.
14. Describe the process of lactation, including the hormonal regulation and the composition and benefits of breast milk.
15. Compare and contrast spermatogenesis and oogenesis, highlighting their similarities and differences.
16. Discuss the various methods of birth control, explaining their mechanisms of action and effectiveness.
17. Describe the common causes of infertility in males and females.
18. Explain the principles and applications of various Assisted Reproductive Technologies (ART), such as IVF, ZIFT, GIFT, and ICSI.
19. Discuss the ethical and social issues associated with human reproductive health and technologies.
20. Describe the structure and functions of the male accessory ducts and glands.
21. Explain the structure and functions of the female accessory ducts and glands.
22. Describe the detailed structure of the human testis, including seminiferous tubules, Sertoli cells, and Leydig cells.
23. Explain the detailed structure of the human ovary, including follicles at various stages of development.
24. Describe the process of ovulation and the formation of the corpus luteum.
25. Explain the hormonal feedback loops that regulate the male reproductive system.
26. Describe the hormonal feedback loops that regulate the female reproductive system.
27. Discuss the physiological changes that occur in the female body during pregnancy.
28. Explain the role of various hormones (e.g., hCG, hPL, relaxin) during pregnancy.
29. Describe the development of the extraembryonic membranes (amnion, chorion, yolk sac, allantois) and their functions.
30. Explain the process of organogenesis, giving examples of major organ system development.
31. Discuss the factors that can affect fetal development and lead to birth defects.
32. Describe the importance of prenatal diagnosis and screening tests during pregnancy.
33. Explain the different types of twins (monozygotic and dizygotic) and their formation.
34. Discuss the various sexually transmitted infections (STIs), their causes, symptoms, and prevention.
35. Describe the importance of reproductive health education and awareness programs.
36. Explain the role of the nervous system in regulating human reproduction.
37. Discuss the impact of environmental factors and lifestyle on human fertility.
38. Describe the process of gamete transport and viability in both males and females.
39. Explain the molecular events involved in sperm-egg interaction during fertilization.
40. Discuss the concept of reproductive aging in males and females.
41. Describe the various methods of contraception and their effectiveness.
42. Explain the mechanism of action of hormonal contraceptives.
43. Discuss the ethical dilemmas surrounding issues like surrogacy and genetic screening.
44. Describe the role of stem cells in reproductive biology and regenerative medicine.
45. Explain the process of cryopreservation of gametes and embryos.
46. Discuss the challenges and future directions in reproductive medicine.
47. Describe the impact of stress on reproductive health.
48. Explain the role of nutrition in reproductive health.
49. Discuss the importance of exercise in maintaining reproductive health.
50. Describe the effects of smoking and alcohol on fertility.
51. Explain the impact of environmental toxins on reproductive health.
52. Discuss the psychological aspects of infertility.
53. Describe the support systems available for infertile couples.
54. Explain the legal aspects of ART.
55. Discuss the concept of reproductive rights.
56. Describe the global burden of infertility.
57. Explain the strategies for preventing unintended pregnancies.
58. Discuss the importance of family planning.
59. Describe the role of government policies in reproductive health.
60. Explain the concept of maternal mortality and its prevention.
61. Discuss the importance of child spacing.
62. Describe the various methods of abortion and their legal status.
63. Explain the ethical considerations surrounding abortion.
64. Discuss the concept of reproductive cloning.
65. Describe the ethical concerns related to reproductive cloning.
66. Explain the concept of therapeutic cloning.
67. Discuss the ethical considerations related to therapeutic cloning.
68. Describe the role of genetics in reproductive health.
69. Explain the concept of genetic counseling.
70. Discuss the importance of genetic testing in reproductive health.
71. Describe the various genetic disorders affecting reproduction.
72. Explain the concept of preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD).
73. Discuss the ethical considerations related to PGD.
74. Describe the role of epigenetics in reproduction.
75. Explain the concept of transgenerational inheritance.
76. Discuss the impact of paternal age on reproductive outcomes.
77. Describe the impact of maternal age on reproductive outcomes.
78. Explain the concept of reproductive immunology.
79. Discuss the role of the immune system in pregnancy.
80. Describe the various immunological causes of infertility.
81. Explain the concept of recurrent pregnancy loss.
82. Discuss the causes and management of recurrent pregnancy loss.
83. Describe the role of inflammation in reproductive health.
84. Explain the concept of endometriosis.
85. Discuss the causes, symptoms, and management of endometriosis.
86. Describe the concept of polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS).
87. Discuss the causes, symptoms, and management of PCOS.
88. Explain the concept of uterine fibroids.
89. Discuss the causes, symptoms, and management of uterine fibroids.
90. Describe the concept of premature ovarian insufficiency (POI).
91. Discuss the causes, symptoms, and management of POI.
92. Explain the concept of male hypogonadism.
93. Discuss the causes, symptoms, and management of male hypogonadism.
94. Describe the concept of erectile dysfunction.
95. Discuss the causes, symptoms, and management of erectile dysfunction.
96. Explain the concept of ejaculatory disorders.
97. Discuss the causes, symptoms, and management of ejaculatory disorders.
98. Describe the role of lifestyle modifications in improving reproductive health.
99. Explain the importance of psychological support in infertility treatment.
100. Discuss the future of reproductive medicine and its potential impact on society.

Answer Key (Revised and Corrected)

Section A: Multiple Choice Questions (1 Mark Each)

1. c) Testis
2. b) Spermatogenesis
3. a) Ovaries, oviducts, uterus, vagina, external genitalia
4. d) Fallopian tube
5. c) Testosterone
6. c) Endometrium
7. b) Ovulation
8. a) Uterine tissue and fetal tissue
9. b) 9 months
10. c) Mammary glands
11. b) Nucleus
12. a) Enzymes for fertilization
13. c) Mitochondria
14. b) Puberty
15. c) Sertoli cells
16. b) Diploid
17. d) 4
18. b) Spermiogenesis
19. b) Ovary
20. b) Diploid
21. b) Oogenesis
22. a) Before birth
23. c) Metaphase II
24. b) Progesterone
25. c) 28 days
26. a) Growth of ovarian follicles
27. b) LH
28. a) Development of corpus luteum
29. b) Attachment of blastocyst to uterine wall
30. b) Trophoblast
31. b) Embryoblast
32. d) Gastrula
33. c) Gastrulation
34. b) Placenta
35. a) hCG
36. b) Amnion
37. c) Parturition
38. c) Oxytocin
39. b) Colostrum
40. a) A pair of testes, accessory ducts, glands, and external genitalia
41. b) It maintains a lower temperature for spermatogenesis
42. d) Both b and c
43. c) Leydig cells
44. a) Rete testis, vasa efferentia, epididymis, vas deferens
45. a) Seminal vesicles, prostate gland, bulbourethral glands
46. a) Fructose, calcium, and certain enzymes
47. a) A pair of ovaries, a pair of oviducts, a uterus, vagina, and external genitalia
48. a) Ligaments
49. c) Fallopian tubes
50. c) Infundibulum
51. c) Fimbriae
52. a) Womb
53. c) Cervix
54. a) Mons pubis, labia majora, labia minora, hymen, clitoris
55. b) Sweat glands
56. c) Gametogenesis
57. b) Diploid
58. a) Haploid
59. a) Haploid
60. c) Spermiation
61. b) Diploid
62. a) Primary follicle
63. a) Antrum
64. c) Zona pellucida
65. b) Ovulation
66. b) Breakdown of endometrial lining
67. b) Follicular phase
68. c) Luteal phase
69. c) Fertilization
70. b) Zygote
71. c) Cleavage
72. c) Morula
73. c) Implantation
74. c) Chorionic villi
75. c) Placenta
76. a) Endocrine gland
77. b) Fetus to the placenta
78. b) Stem cells
79. c) Gastrulation
80. c) Gestation
81. c) Both placenta and fully developed fetus
82. b) Oxytocin
83. c) Testis
84. b) Epididymis
85. b) Vas deferens
86. c) Seminal vesicle
87. c) Prostate gland
88. c) Ovary
89. c) Infundibulum
90. c) Uterus
91. b) Cervix
92. a) Mons pubis, labia majora, labia minora, clitoris
93. c) Clitoris
94. b) Oogenesis
95. c) Oogonia
96. a) Prophase I
97. d) Graafian follicle
98. b) Corpus luteum
99. b) Progesterone
100. b) Menopause

Section B: 1 Mark Short Answer Questions

1. Gametogenesis is the process of formation of gametes (sperms in males and ova in females).
2. The scrotum provides a lower temperature (2-2.5°C lower than body temperature) necessary for spermatogenesis.
3. Leydig cells (interstitial cells) secrete androgens, primarily testosterone.
4. Spermiogenesis is the process of transformation of non-motile spermatids into motile spermatozoa (sperms).
5. Spermatogenesis occurs in the seminiferous tubules of the testes.
6. The male accessory glands are the seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and bulbourethral glands (Cowper's glands).
7. Seminal plasma is the fluid part of semen, secreted by the male accessory glands, rich in fructose, calcium, and certain enzymes.
8. The female primary sex organ is the ovary.
9. Fimbriae are finger-like projections at the edge of the infundibulum (part of the fallopian tube) that help collect the ovum after ovulation.
10. The uterus is also known as the womb.
11. Menstruation is the monthly shedding of the uterine lining (endometrium) in females, occurring if fertilization does not take place.
12. Ovulation is the release of a mature ovum (secondary oocyte) from the Graafian follicle of the ovary.
13. The main hormones involved in the regulation of the menstrual cycle are GnRH, FSH, LH, estrogen, and progesterone.
14. Implantation is the process by which the blastocyst attaches to and embeds itself in the endometrium (inner lining) of the uterus.
15. Gestation period is the duration of pregnancy, from conception to birth, approximately 9 months (280 days) in humans.
16. Parturition is the process of childbirth, the expulsion of the fully developed fetus from the uterus.
17. Colostrum is the yellowish, antibody-rich fluid secreted by the mammary glands during the first few days after childbirth, providing immunity to the newborn.
18. The seminiferous tubules are lined by spermatogonia (sperm-forming cells) and Sertoli cells (nurse cells).
19. Sertoli cells provide nourishment to the developing sperms and secrete some hormones like inhibin.
20. The acrosome is a cap-like structure at the head of the sperm, containing hydrolytic enzymes (e.g., hyaluronidase, acrosin) essential for penetrating the egg during fertilization.
21. The middle piece of the sperm contains numerous mitochondria, which provide the energy for the movement of the sperm tail, essential for motility.
22. Oogenesis is the process of formation of a mature female gamete (ovum) from oogonia in the ovaries.
23. A Graafian follicle is the mature ovarian follicle, containing the secondary oocyte, ready for ovulation.
24. The corpus luteum is a temporary endocrine structure formed from the ruptured Graafian follicle after ovulation, which secretes progesterone.
25. The menstrual cycle consists of four phases: menstrual phase, follicular (proliferative) phase, ovulatory phase, and luteal (secretory) phase.
26. The LH surge is a rapid increase in Luteinizing Hormone (LH) secretion that triggers ovulation and the formation of the corpus luteum.
27. The zona pellucida is a non-cellular, transparent outer layer secreted by the secondary oocyte, which plays a crucial role in fertilization.
28. Cleavage refers to the rapid mitotic divisions of the zygote without significant growth in size, leading to the formation of a multicellular embryo.
29. A morula is a solid ball of 8-16 blastomeres (cells) formed during the early stages of embryonic development, resembling a mulberry.
30. A blastocyst is the embryonic stage that follows the morula, characterized by a fluid-filled cavity (blastocoel), an outer trophoblast layer, and an inner cell mass.
31. The trophoblast is the outer layer of cells of the blastocyst, which helps in implantation and forms the fetal part of the placenta.
32. The inner cell mass (embryoblast) is a cluster of cells within the blastocyst that differentiates to form the embryo proper.
33. Chorionic villi are finger-like projections that appear on the trophoblast after implantation, which interdigitate with uterine tissue to form the placenta.
34. The placenta serves as a structural and functional unit between the developing embryo (fetus) and the maternal body, facilitating nutrient supply, oxygen exchange, waste removal, and hormone secretion.
35. Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG) is a hormone secreted by the placenta, which maintains the corpus luteum and thus the pregnancy.
36. The amnion is a membrane that forms a fluid-filled sac (amniotic cavity) around the embryo, protecting it from shock and desiccation.
37. The umbilical cord is a cord-like structure that connects the fetus to the placenta, containing umbilical arteries and veins for exchange of substances.
38. The three germ layers formed during gastrulation are the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm.
39. Organogenesis is the process of formation and development of various organs and organ systems from the three primary germ layers during embryonic development.
40. Lactation is the process of milk production and secretion by the mammary glands after childbirth.
41. The male accessory ducts include the rete testis, vasa efferentia, epididymis, and vas deferens.
42. The rete testis is a network of tubules in the testis that collects sperms from the seminiferous tubules.
43. Vasa efferentia are small ducts that carry sperms from the rete testis to the epididymis.
44. The epididymis is a long, coiled tube located on the posterior surface of each testis, where sperms mature and are stored.
45. The vas deferens is a tube that carries sperms from the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct.
46. The ejaculatory duct is formed by the union of the vas deferens and the duct of the seminal vesicle, opening into the urethra.
47. In males, the urethra serves as a common passage for both urine and semen.
48. The female external genitalia (vulva) include the mons pubis, labia majora, labia minora, hymen, and clitoris.
49. The mons pubis is a cushion of fatty tissue covered by skin and pubic hair, located above the labia majora.
50. Labia majora are fleshy folds of tissue, which extend down from the mons pubis and surround the vaginal opening.
51. Labia minora are paired folds of tissue located under the labia majora.
52. The hymen is a membrane that partially covers the opening of the vagina.
53. The clitoris is a tiny, finger-like erectile structure located at the upper junction of the two labia minora, homologous to the penis.
54. Mammary glands are paired structures (breasts) that contain glandular tissue and variable amounts of fat, responsible for milk production.
55. Menarche is the first menstruation, which begins at puberty in females.
56. Menopause is the cessation of menstruation, typically occurring around 45-50 years of age in females.
57. A primary follicle consists of a primary oocyte surrounded by a single layer of granulosa cells.
58. A secondary follicle is formed when the primary follicle gets surrounded by more layers of granulosa cells and a new theca layer.
59. A tertiary follicle is characterized by the presence of a fluid-filled cavity called the antrum.
60. The antrum is the fluid-filled cavity that develops within the tertiary follicle.
61. The corona radiata is a layer of follicular cells that surrounds the zona pellucida of the ovum after ovulation.
62. The first polar body is a small, non-functional cell formed during the first meiotic division of the primary oocyte, which receives very little cytoplasm.
63. The second polar body is a small, non-functional cell formed during the second meiotic division of the secondary oocyte, which also receives very little cytoplasm.
64. Unequal cytokinesis in oogenesis ensures that the ovum receives almost all the cytoplasm and nutrients, while the polar bodies receive very little, making the ovum large and nutrient-rich.
65. In males, FSH (Follicle Stimulating Hormone) acts on Sertoli cells and stimulates the secretion of factors that help in spermatogenesis.
66. In males, LH (Luteinizing Hormone) acts on Leydig cells and stimulates the synthesis and secretion of androgens (testosterone).
67. In females, FSH stimulates the growth and development of ovarian follicles.
68. In females, LH stimulates ovulation and the formation of the corpus luteum.
69. Estrogen, secreted by growing follicles, stimulates the proliferation of the endometrium and the development of female secondary sexual characteristics.
70. Progesterone, secreted by the corpus luteum, maintains the endometrium for implantation and pregnancy.
71. The corpus luteum is crucial for maintaining pregnancy by secreting progesterone, which is essential for the maintenance of the uterine lining.
72. If fertilization does not occur, the corpus luteum degenerates, leading to a sharp fall in progesterone levels, which causes the disintegration of the endometrium and menstruation.
73. During pregnancy, the corpus luteum persists and continues to secrete progesterone under the influence of hCG (human Chorionic Gonadotropin) from the placenta.
74. The decidua is the modified endometrium of the uterus during pregnancy, which forms the maternal part of the placenta.
75. The umbilical arteries carry deoxygenated blood and waste products from the fetus to the placenta, while the umbilical vein carries oxygenated blood and nutrients from the placenta to the fetus.
76. Relaxin is a hormone secreted by the ovary and placenta during pregnancy, which relaxes the pelvic ligaments and widens the cervix to facilitate parturition.
77. The fetal ejection reflex is a mild uterine contraction initiated by signals from the fully developed fetus and the placenta, which triggers the release of oxytocin.
78. Oxytocin stimulates the contraction of myoepithelial cells surrounding the alveoli in the mammary glands, leading to milk ejection (let-down reflex).
79. Breastfeeding provides optimal nutrition for the newborn, transfers antibodies from the mother (passive immunity), promotes bonding, and helps the mother's uterus to contract.
80. Spermatogenesis is the entire process of sperm formation from spermatogonia, while spermiogenesis is specifically the final stage where spermatids transform into mature spermatozoa.
81. Primary sexual characteristics are the reproductive organs themselves (testes, ovaries). Secondary sexual characteristics are external features that distinguish males and females but are not directly involved in reproduction (e.g., body hair, voice pitch).
82. The blood-testis barrier is a physical barrier formed by tight junctions between Sertoli cells, which protects developing sperm from the immune system and harmful substances in the blood.
83. Capacitation is the physiological maturation of sperm in the female reproductive tract, which enables them to fertilize an egg.
84. The cortical reaction is a process that occurs after a sperm binds to the egg, where cortical granules release enzymes that modify the zona pellucida, preventing polyspermy.
85. Polyspermy is the fertilization of an egg by more than one sperm, which is usually lethal for the embryo.
86. The zona pellucida is crucial in fertilization as it contains specific receptors for sperm binding and undergoes changes (cortical reaction) after the first sperm entry to block polyspermy.
87. A morula is a solid ball of cells (8-16 blastomeres), while a blastocyst is a hollow ball of cells with a fluid-filled cavity (blastocoel), an outer trophoblast, and an inner cell mass.
88. Gastrulation is the process during early embryonic development where the inner cell mass differentiates into three primary germ layers: ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm.
89. The three germ layers are significant because all the tissues and organs of the adult body develop from these specific layers.
90. The embryonic period is from fertilization to the end of the 8th week, during which major organs form. The fetal period is from the 9th week until birth, characterized by growth and maturation of organs.
91. Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG) is a hormone secreted by the trophoblast after implantation. It maintains the corpus luteum, ensuring continued progesterone secretion to support the pregnancy.
92. Morning sickness is nausea and vomiting that commonly occurs during the first trimester of pregnancy, often attributed to hormonal changes.
93. Quickening refers to the first fetal movements felt by the mother, usually occurring around the 5th month of pregnancy.
94. True labor involves regular, strong uterine contractions that lead to cervical dilation and effacement. False labor (Braxton Hicks contractions) are irregular, weaker contractions that do not cause cervical changes.
95. The stages of labor are: 1. Dilation (cervix dilates). 2. Expulsion (fetus is delivered). 3. Placental (placenta is expelled).
96. Episiotomy is a surgical incision made in the perineum (area between vagina and anus) during childbirth to enlarge the vaginal opening and prevent tearing.
97. A Cesarean section (C-section) is a surgical procedure to deliver the baby through an incision in the mother's abdomen and uterus.
98. Infertility is the inability to conceive after 12 months of regular, unprotected intercourse.
99. Assisted Reproductive Technologies (ART) are medical procedures used to help infertile couples conceive, such as IVF, ZIFT, GIFT, and ICSI.
100. IVF-ET (In Vitro Fertilization and Embryo Transfer) is an ART where fertilization occurs outside the body (in vitro), and the resulting embryo is transferred into the uterus.

Section C: 2 Marks Questions

1. A human sperm is a microscopic structure composed of a head, neck, middle piece, and tail. The head contains the haploid nucleus and is capped by the acrosome. The middle piece contains numerous mitochondria for energy, and the tail provides motility.
2. Leydig cells (interstitial cells) are located in the interstitial spaces outside the seminiferous tubules. They synthesize and secrete androgens, primarily testosterone, which is essential for spermatogenesis. Sertoli cells (nurse cells) are present inside the seminiferous tubules and provide nourishment to the developing sperms. They also secrete factors that help in spermiogenesis and form the blood-testis barrier.
3. Sperms are produced in the seminiferous tubules. From there, they move into the rete testis, then through the vasa efferentia to the epididymis, where they mature and are stored. From the epididymis, sperms are transported through the vas deferens, which joins with the duct of the seminal vesicle to form the ejaculatory duct. The ejaculatory duct then opens into the urethra, which carries sperms out of the body.
4. The male accessory glands (seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and bulbourethral glands) secrete seminal plasma. Seminal vesicles contribute fructose (energy for sperm), prostaglandins, and clotting proteins. The prostate gland secretes a milky, slightly acidic fluid that activates sperm. Bulbourethral glands secrete a lubricating fluid that neutralizes acidity in the urethra.
5. A human ovum (egg) is a large, non-motile, spherical cell. It is surrounded by a transparent, non-cellular zona pellucida and an outer layer of follicular cells called the corona radiata. It contains a large nucleus and abundant cytoplasm with stored nutrients.
6. Oogenesis begins during fetal development when oogonia (diploid germ cells) proliferate by mitosis. They then enter meiosis I and get arrested at prophase I, forming primary oocytes. These primary oocytes are then surrounded by granulosa cells to form primary follicles. No further oogonia are formed after birth.
7. During the follicular phase, under the influence of FSH, several primary follicles grow and develop. They transform into secondary follicles, then tertiary follicles (characterized by the fluid-filled antrum), and finally, one mature Graafian follicle. The growing follicles secrete estrogen.
8. Spermatogenesis is regulated by hormones from the hypothalamus, pituitary, and testes. GnRH from the hypothalamus stimulates the pituitary to release LH and FSH. LH acts on Leydig cells to secrete testosterone, which stimulates spermatogenesis. FSH acts on Sertoli cells to secrete factors that aid in spermiogenesis.
9. The menstrual cycle is regulated by GnRH from the hypothalamus, which stimulates the anterior pituitary to release FSH and LH. FSH primarily stimulates follicular growth and estrogen secretion. LH triggers ovulation and the formation of the corpus luteum, which secretes progesterone. Estrogen and progesterone, in turn, exert feedback control on GnRH, FSH, and LH.
10. Ovulation is triggered by a surge in LH (LH surge) around the middle of the menstrual cycle (day 14). The LH surge induces the rupture of the mature Graafian follicle, releasing the secondary oocyte from the ovary. It also initiates the transformation of the ruptured follicle into the corpus luteum.
11. The uterus undergoes cyclical changes during the menstrual cycle. In the menstrual phase, the endometrial lining breaks down and is shed. In the proliferative phase, under estrogen's influence, the endometrium regenerates and thickens. In the secretory phase, under progesterone's influence, the endometrium becomes highly vascularized and glandular, preparing for implantation.
12. Fertilization is the fusion of a sperm and an ovum, typically occurring in the ampulla of the fallopian tube. Sperm undergo capacitation in the female tract. Upon encountering the egg, the sperm undergoes an acrosome reaction, releasing enzymes to penetrate the corona radiata and zona pellucida. The sperm then fuses with the egg membrane, leading to the completion of meiosis II by the egg and the formation of a diploid zygote.
13. The acrosome reaction allows the sperm to release enzymes that digest the egg's outer layers (corona radiata and zona pellucida), enabling sperm penetration. The cortical reaction, triggered by sperm entry, involves the release of cortical granules that modify the zona pellucula, preventing any further sperm from entering (block to polyspermy).
14. Cleavage refers to the rapid mitotic divisions of the zygote as it moves through the fallopian tube. These divisions increase the number of cells (blastomeres) without increasing the overall size of the embryo. After 3-4 days, a solid ball of 8-16 blastomeres, resembling a mulberry, is formed, called the morula.
15. The morula continues to divide and develops into a blastocyst. The blastocyst is a hollow ball of cells with a fluid-filled cavity (blastocoel). It consists of an outer layer of cells called the trophoblast and an inner cell mass (embryoblast). The trophoblast helps in implantation, and the inner cell mass forms the embryo proper.
16. Implantation is the process by which the blastocyst attaches to and embeds itself in the endometrium of the uterus. This usually occurs about 7 days after fertilization. The trophoblast cells of the blastocyst adhere to the uterine wall and secrete enzymes that help it burrow into the endometrium.
17. The placenta is a temporary organ that forms during pregnancy, connecting the mother and the developing fetus. It is formed by the interdigitation of chorionic villi (from the fetus) and uterine tissue. Its functions include facilitating nutrient and oxygen exchange, waste removal, and hormone secretion like hCG, hPL, estrogen, and progesterone.
18. The umbilical cord is a flexible, tube-like structure that connects the fetus to the placenta. It contains two umbilical arteries (carrying deoxygenated blood and waste from fetus to placenta) and one umbilical vein (carrying oxygenated blood and nutrients from placenta to fetus). It is the lifeline between the mother and the developing baby.
19. Gastrulation is a critical process during early embryonic development where the inner cell mass differentiates and reorganizes to form the three primary germ layers: ectoderm (outer), mesoderm (middle), and endoderm (inner). These germ layers are fundamental as all tissues and organs of the adult body develop from them.
20. During the first trimester (weeks 1-12), major organ systems begin to form (organogenesis). The heart starts beating, limbs develop, and the brain and spinal cord form. The embryo transforms into a fetus by the end of this trimester, though it is still very small.
21. The second trimester (weeks 13-27) is characterized by rapid growth and maturation of organs. The fetus becomes more active, and the mother can feel its movements (quickening). Hair, eyelashes, and eyebrows appear. The sex of the baby can often be determined by ultrasound.
22. The third trimester (weeks 28-40) is primarily a period of rapid weight gain and final maturation of organs, especially the lungs. The fetus prepares for birth, turning into a head-down position. The mother experiences increased discomfort and prepares for labor.
23. Parturition is initiated by complex neuroendocrine mechanisms. Signals from the fully developed fetus and the placenta induce mild uterine contractions (fetal ejection reflex). This triggers the release of oxytocin from the maternal pituitary, which causes stronger uterine contractions, leading to labor.
24. Lactation is the production and secretion of milk by mammary glands. It is primarily regulated by prolactin, which stimulates milk synthesis, and oxytocin, which causes milk ejection (let-down reflex) in response to suckling. Breast milk provides complete nutrition and antibodies to the infant.
25. Colostrum is the first milk produced by the mother, rich in antibodies (IgA), proteins, and vitamins. It provides passive immunity to the newborn, protecting them from infections, and also helps in the development of the infant's digestive system.
26. Spermatogenesis is the continuous process of sperm formation in males, producing millions of sperms. Oogenesis is the discontinuous process of ovum formation in females, producing only one ovum per cycle. Spermatogenesis produces four functional gametes from one primary spermatocyte, while oogenesis produces one functional ovum and polar bodies from one primary oocyte.
27. The male reproductive system is designed for continuous sperm production and delivery, with external testes for temperature regulation. The female system is designed for cyclical egg production, fertilization, and nurturing a developing embryo/fetus internally. Both systems are hormonally regulated, but the patterns and specific hormones differ significantly.
28. Seminiferous tubules are highly coiled structures located within the testes. They are the sites of spermatogenesis, where sperm are produced. They are lined by spermatogonia and Sertoli cells.
29. The epididymis is a long, coiled tube located on the posterior side of each testis. It serves as the site for sperm maturation, where sperms acquire motility and fertilizing capacity. It also stores sperms before ejaculation.
30. The fallopian tubes (oviducts) are paired tubes extending from the uterus to near the ovaries. They consist of the infundibulum (funnel-shaped with fimbriae), ampulla (site of fertilization), and isthmus (narrow part joining uterus). They transport the ovum from the ovary to the uterus.
31. The uterus is a hollow, muscular, pear-shaped organ located in the pelvic cavity. Its primary function is to receive the fertilized egg, provide a site for implantation, and support the development of the embryo and fetus throughout pregnancy. Its muscular walls contract during parturition.
32. The ovary is the primary female sex organ, located in the pelvic cavity. It produces female gametes (ova) through oogenesis and secretes female sex hormones, estrogen and progesterone, which regulate the menstrual cycle and secondary sexual characteristics.
33. The hypothalamus secretes GnRH, which stimulates the anterior pituitary. The anterior pituitary then secretes FSH and LH. These gonadotropins act on the gonads (testes/ovaries) to stimulate gamete production and hormone secretion, forming a crucial part of the neuroendocrine regulation of reproduction.
34. In males, GnRH stimulates LH and FSH release. LH stimulates Leydig cells to produce testosterone. FSH and testosterone stimulate spermatogenesis. Testosterone and inhibin (from Sertoli cells) provide negative feedback to the hypothalamus and pituitary, regulating hormone levels.
35. In females, GnRH stimulates FSH and LH release. FSH stimulates follicular growth and estrogen secretion. LH triggers ovulation and corpus luteum formation, which secretes progesterone. Estrogen and progesterone provide negative feedback, but estrogen can also exert positive feedback leading to the LH surge.
36. The primary oocyte, arrested in Prophase I since fetal life, resumes meiosis I just before ovulation. It completes meiosis I, resulting in a large secondary oocyte and a small first polar body. The secondary oocyte then proceeds to Metaphase II and is released during ovulation.
37. If fertilization occurs, the corpus luteum persists due to hCG secreted by the trophoblast. It continues to secrete progesterone, maintaining the pregnancy. If fertilization does not occur, the corpus luteum degenerates after about 14 days, leading to a drop in progesterone and the onset of menstruation.
38. During the secretory (luteal) phase, under the influence of progesterone from the corpus luteum, the endometrium becomes highly vascularized, glandular, and thick. The endometrial glands secrete uterine milk, making the uterus receptive for implantation of the blastocyst.
39. Capacitation is a series of physiological changes that sperms undergo in the female reproductive tract (uterus and fallopian tubes) before they can fertilize an egg. These changes involve alterations in the sperm membrane that enable them to undergo the acrosome reaction and become hyperactive.
40. The block to polyspermy is a mechanism that prevents multiple sperms from fertilizing a single egg. It involves two main events: a fast block (depolarization of the egg membrane) and a slow block (cortical reaction), where enzymes released from cortical granules modify the zona pellucida, making it impenetrable to other sperms.
41. Blastulation is the process of forming a blastocyst from a morula. As the morula enters the uterus, fluid seeps into it, creating a central cavity called the blastocoel. The cells rearrange to form an outer trophoblast layer and an inner cell mass, thus forming the blastocyst.
42. The inner cell mass (embryoblast) of the blastocyst differentiates into the epiblast and hypoblast, forming a bilaminar embryonic disc. The epiblast gives rise to the three primary germ layers (ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm) during gastrulation, which will form all the tissues and organs of the embryo.
43. The amniotic cavity forms within the epiblast, filling with amniotic fluid that cushions and protects the embryo. The yolk sac forms from the hypoblast and is involved in early blood cell formation and nutrient transfer before the placenta is fully functional.
44. The chorion is the outermost extraembryonic membrane, formed from the trophoblast and extraembryonic mesoderm. It develops chorionic villi that contribute to the placenta. The amnion is the inner membrane that encloses the amniotic cavity, providing a protective environment for the embryo.
45. Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) is a glycoprotein hormone secreted by the trophoblast cells of the blastocyst after implantation. Its primary role is to maintain the corpus luteum, preventing its degeneration and ensuring the continued secretion of progesterone, which is essential for maintaining the uterine lining and preventing menstruation.
46. During pregnancy, the mother's body undergoes significant physiological changes. These include increased blood volume, cardiac output, and respiratory rate. The kidneys work harder, and the digestive system may experience nausea and constipation. Hormonal changes lead to breast enlargement and uterine growth.
47. Labor is divided into three stages. Stage 1 (dilation) involves regular uterine contractions that cause the cervix to efface (thin) and dilate (open). Stage 2 (expulsion) begins when the cervix is fully dilated and ends with the delivery of the baby. Stage 3 (placental) involves the delivery of the placenta after the baby is born.
48. Breastfeeding provides optimal nutrition for the baby, containing all necessary nutrients and antibodies for immunity. For the mother, it helps the uterus contract, reduces postpartum bleeding, and lowers the risk of certain cancers. It also promotes bonding between mother and baby.
49. Causes of male infertility can include low sperm count (oligospermia), poor sperm motility (asthenozoospermia), abnormal sperm morphology (teratozoospermia), blockages in the reproductive tract, hormonal imbalances, genetic factors, and lifestyle factors (e.g., smoking, excessive heat).
50. Causes of female infertility can include ovulatory disorders (e.g., PCOS), blocked fallopian tubes (due to PID or endometriosis), uterine abnormalities (e.g., fibroids), endometriosis, hormonal imbalances, and age-related decline in egg quality and quantity.
51. In Vitro Fertilization (IVF) is an Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART) where eggs are retrieved from the woman's ovaries and fertilized by sperm in a laboratory dish (in vitro). The resulting embryos are then cultured for a few days before being transferred into the woman's uterus.
52. Zygote Intrafallopian Transfer (ZIFT) is an ART where eggs are fertilized in vitro, and the resulting zygotes (fertilized eggs) are immediately transferred into the fallopian tube, allowing natural transport to the uterus for implantation.
53. Gamete Intrafallopian Transfer (GIFT) is an ART where eggs and sperm are collected and then directly transferred into the fallopian tube, allowing fertilization to occur naturally inside the woman's body. It requires at least one healthy fallopian tube.
54. Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection (ICSI) is a specialized IVF procedure where a single sperm is directly injected into an egg. It is particularly useful in cases of severe male infertility (e.g., very low sperm count or poor motility) or when previous IVF attempts have failed.
55. Ethical considerations in ART include the moral status of embryos, selective reduction (reducing the number of fetuses in multiple pregnancies), genetic screening of embryos, surrogacy, and the potential for designer babies. These raise complex questions about life, parenthood, and societal values.
56. Prostaglandins are lipid compounds that act like hormones. In reproduction, they are involved in various processes: they stimulate uterine contractions during menstruation and parturition, play a role in sperm motility, and are involved in ovulation and corpus luteum regression.
57. The blood-testis barrier is a physiological barrier formed by tight junctions between Sertoli cells, which protects developing sperm from the immune system and harmful substances in the blood.
58. Spermiation is the process by which mature spermatozoa are released from the Sertoli cells into the lumen of the seminiferous tubules. This is the final step of spermatogenesis before sperms are transported to the epididymis for maturation.
59. Inhibin is a hormone secreted by Sertoli cells in males (and granulosa cells in females). In males, it selectively inhibits the secretion of FSH from the anterior pituitary, providing a negative feedback mechanism to regulate spermatogenesis.
60. A mature ovarian follicle (Graafian follicle) is a large, fluid-filled structure containing a secondary oocyte. It consists of several layers of granulosa cells, a fluid-filled antrum, and two layers of theca cells (theca interna and theca externa).
61. If fertilization does not occur, the corpus luteum degenerates after about 14 days. It transforms into a small, white scar tissue called the corpus albicans, which marks the end of the luteal phase and leads to menstruation.
62. Menopause is characterized by a decline in ovarian function, leading to a decrease in estrogen and progesterone production. This results in elevated FSH and LH levels (due to lack of negative feedback) and the cessation of menstrual cycles.
63. Estrogen is the primary female sex hormone. It is responsible for the development of female secondary sexual characteristics (e.g., breast development, widening of hips), stimulates the growth and proliferation of the endometrium, and plays a role in bone density and cardiovascular health.
64. Progesterone is a steroid hormone primarily secreted by the corpus luteum. Its main role is to prepare and maintain the uterine lining (endometrium) for implantation and pregnancy. It also inhibits uterine contractions and suppresses the immune response to the fetus.
65. Relaxin is a hormone produced by the corpus luteum and placenta during pregnancy. It helps to relax the ligaments in the pelvis and soften the cervix, making it easier for the baby to pass through the birth canal during parturition.
66. Embryonic stem cells are pluripotent cells derived from the inner cell mass of a blastocyst. They have the ability to differentiate into any cell type of the body. Their differentiation is guided by specific growth factors and signaling molecules in their environment.
67. Totipotency is the ability of a single cell (like a zygote) to differentiate into all cell types, including extraembryonic tissues. Pluripotency is the ability of a cell (like an embryonic stem cell) to differentiate into all cell types of the three germ layers, but not extraembryonic tissues.
68. The neural tube develops from the ectoderm during neurulation. It forms the brain and spinal cord. Defects in neural tube closure can lead to conditions like spina bifida.
69. Somites are segmented blocks of mesoderm that form along the neural tube. They differentiate into various structures, including vertebrae, ribs, skeletal muscles of the trunk and limbs, and dermis of the skin.
70. The heart begins to develop from mesoderm cells around the third week of gestation. It starts as a simple tube that folds and septates to form the four-chambered heart, becoming functional and beginning to beat by the fourth week.
71. Limb buds appear around the fourth week of gestation. They develop from the lateral plate mesoderm and are patterned by signaling molecules like FGF and Sonic Hedgehog, leading to the formation of bones, muscles, and connective tissues of the upper and lower limbs.
72. The face develops from five facial prominences that fuse during the 4th to 10th weeks of gestation. Failure of these prominences to fuse properly can result in congenital anomalies like cleft lip and palate.
73. The brain develops from the anterior part of the neural tube. It undergoes rapid growth and differentiation, forming the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain, which further develop into the cerebrum, cerebellum, brainstem, and other structures.
74. The eyes develop from outgrowths of the forebrain (optic vesicles) and ectoderm. The ears develop from ectodermal thickenings (otic placodes) that invaginate to form the inner ear, while the middle and outer ear develop from pharyngeal arches.
75. The digestive system develops from the endoderm, forming the primitive gut tube. Outgrowths from this tube give rise to organs like the liver, pancreas, and gallbladder. The mesoderm forms the muscular and connective tissue layers of the gut wall.
76. The respiratory system develops as an outgrowth from the foregut endoderm. The trachea, bronchi, and lungs form from this outgrowth, undergoing extensive branching and differentiation to form the complex alveolar structure necessary for gas exchange.
77. The urinary system develops from the intermediate mesoderm. The kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra form sequentially, with the kidneys becoming functional and producing urine by the end of the first trimester.
78. The reproductive organs develop from the intermediate mesoderm and primordial germ cells. Initially, both male and female embryos have indifferent gonads. The presence or absence of the SRY gene on the Y chromosome determines whether the gonad develops into a testis or an ovary.
79. Sex determination in humans is chromosomal. Individuals with XX chromosomes are typically female, and those with XY chromosomes are typically male. The presence of the SRY gene on the Y chromosome is the key factor that triggers male development.
80. The SRY (Sex-determining Region Y) gene is located on the Y chromosome. Its presence initiates the development of the indifferent gonad into a testis. In the absence of SRY, the gonad develops into an ovary.
81. Fraternal (dizygotic) twins result from the fertilization of two separate eggs by two separate sperms. They are genetically as similar as any other siblings. Identical (monozygotic) twins result from the splitting of a single fertilized egg (zygote) into two embryos. They are genetically identical.
82. Conjoined twins occur when a single fertilized egg fails to completely separate into two distinct embryos during early development. The extent of fusion varies, leading to different types of conjoined twins depending on which body parts are shared.
83. Ectopic pregnancy occurs when a fertilized egg implants outside the uterus, most commonly in the fallopian tube. It can also occur in the ovary, abdomen, or cervix. It is a medical emergency as the pregnancy cannot survive and can cause severe internal bleeding.
84. Preeclampsia is a serious pregnancy complication characterized by high blood pressure and signs of damage to another organ system, most often the liver and kidneys. Symptoms include severe headaches, vision changes, and swelling. It can lead to eclampsia, which involves seizures.
85. Gestational diabetes is a type of diabetes that develops during pregnancy in women who did not have diabetes before. It is caused by insulin resistance due to pregnancy hormones. Symptoms are often mild, but it can lead to complications for both mother and baby if not managed.
86. Prenatal care is essential for a healthy pregnancy outcome. It involves regular medical check-ups, monitoring maternal and fetal health, nutritional counseling, screening for potential complications, and preparing for childbirth. It helps detect and manage issues early.
87. Birth control methods include hormonal methods (pills, patches, injections, implants), barrier methods (condoms, diaphragms), intrauterine devices (IUDs), natural family planning, and permanent methods (vasectomy, tubal ligation).
88. Oral contraceptives (birth control pills) primarily work by releasing synthetic estrogen and progesterone, which inhibit the release of FSH and LH from the pituitary. This prevents ovulation and also thickens cervical mucus (blocking sperm) and thins the uterine lining (preventing implantation).
89. Intrauterine devices (IUDs) are small, T-shaped devices inserted into the uterus. Hormonal IUDs release progestin, which thickens cervical mucus and thins the uterine lining. Copper IUDs cause an inflammatory reaction in the uterus that is toxic to sperm and eggs, preventing fertilization and implantation.
90. Vasectomy is a permanent male birth control method. It involves surgically cutting or sealing the vas deferens, which are the tubes that carry sperm from the testes. This prevents sperm from mixing with semen during ejaculation, making the man sterile.
91. Tubal ligation is a permanent female birth control method. It involves surgically cutting, tying, or sealing the fallopian tubes. This prevents eggs from traveling from the ovaries to the uterus and blocks sperm from reaching the egg, thus preventing fertilization.
92. Common sexually transmitted infections (STIs) include Chlamydia, Gonorrhea, Syphilis, Herpes, HPV (Human Papillomavirus), and HIV/AIDS. They are spread primarily through sexual contact.
93. Methods of preventing STIs include abstinence, consistent and correct use of condoms, limiting the number of sexual partners, getting tested regularly, and vaccination (e.g., for HPV).
94. Chlamydia is a common bacterial STI. Symptoms are often mild or absent, but can include abnormal discharge, painful urination, and pelvic pain. Untreated Chlamydia can lead to pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) in women, causing infertility and ectopic pregnancy.
95. Gonorrhea is a bacterial STI. Symptoms can include painful urination, abnormal discharge, and pelvic pain. Like Chlamydia, untreated Gonorrhea can lead to PID, infertility, and can also affect joints, heart, and other body parts.
96. Syphilis is a bacterial STI that progresses through stages. Primary syphilis involves a painless sore (chancre). Secondary syphilis involves a rash and flu-like symptoms. Tertiary syphilis can cause severe damage to the heart, brain, and other organs. It is curable with antibiotics.
97. Herpes is a viral STI caused by HSV. It causes painful blisters and sores, primarily on the genitals or mouth. It is a lifelong infection, with recurrent outbreaks. There is no cure, but antiviral medications can manage symptoms and reduce outbreaks.
98. HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) is a viral infection that attacks the immune system. AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome) is the late stage of HIV infection. HIV is transmitted through specific body fluids. There is no cure, but antiretroviral therapy can manage the virus and prevent progression to AIDS.
99. Sexual health education is crucial for empowering individuals to make informed decisions about their sexual health. It provides knowledge about anatomy, reproduction, contraception, STIs, consent, and healthy relationships, promoting responsible sexual behavior and well-being.
100. Ethical considerations in human reproduction include issues like access to ART, genetic selection, surrogacy, embryo research, and the rights of gamete donors and offspring. These topics often involve balancing individual autonomy with societal values and moral principles.

Section D: 3 Marks Broad Questions

1. Describe the detailed structure of the male reproductive system with a labeled diagram.
2. Explain the process of spermatogenesis in detail, including the different cell types and meiotic divisions.
3. Describe the hormonal control of the male reproductive system, including the roles of GnRH, LH, FSH, and testosterone.
4. Describe the detailed structure of the female reproductive system with a labeled diagram.
5. Explain the process of oogenesis in detail, including the different stages and meiotic divisions.
6. Discuss the hormonal control of the female reproductive system, including the roles of GnRH, FSH, LH, estrogen, and progesterone.
7. Explain the events of the menstrual cycle, correlating the ovarian and uterine events with hormonal changes.
8. Describe the process of fertilization, including the events leading to the fusion of gametes and the prevention of polyspermy.
9. Explain the early embryonic development from zygote to implantation, including cleavage, morula, and blastocyst formation.
10. Describe the formation, structure, and functions of the placenta.
11. Explain the process of gastrulation and the significance of the three germ layers in embryonic development.
12. Describe the major developmental events that occur during the first, second, and third trimesters of human pregnancy.
13. Explain the process of parturition, including the hormonal signals and the stages of labor.
14. Describe the process of lactation, including the hormonal regulation and the composition and benefits of breast milk.
15. Compare and contrast spermatogenesis and oogenesis, highlighting their similarities and differences.
16. Discuss the various methods of birth control, explaining their mechanisms of action and effectiveness.
17. Describe the common causes of infertility in males and females.
18. Explain the principles and applications of various Assisted Reproductive Technologies (ART), such as IVF, ZIFT, GIFT, and ICSI.
19. Discuss the ethical and social issues associated with human reproductive health and technologies.
20. Describe the structure and functions of the male accessory ducts and glands.
21. Explain the structure and functions of the female accessory ducts and glands.
22. Describe the detailed structure of the human testis, including seminiferous tubules, Sertoli cells, and Leydig cells.
23. Explain the detailed structure of the human ovary, including follicles at various stages of development.
24. Describe the process of ovulation and the formation of the corpus luteum.
25. Explain the hormonal feedback loops that regulate the male reproductive system.
26. Describe the hormonal feedback loops that regulate the female reproductive system.
27. Discuss the physiological changes that occur in the female body during pregnancy.
28. Explain the role of various hormones (e.g., hCG, hPL, relaxin) during pregnancy.
29. Describe the development of the extraembryonic membranes (amnion, chorion, yolk sac, allantois) and their functions.
30. Explain the process of organogenesis, giving examples of major organ system development.
31. Discuss the factors that can affect fetal development and lead to birth defects.
32. Describe the importance of prenatal diagnosis and screening tests during pregnancy.
33. Explain the different types of twins (monozygotic and dizygotic) and their formation.
34. Discuss the various sexually transmitted infections (STIs), their causes, symptoms, and prevention.
35. Describe the importance of reproductive health education and awareness programs.
36. Explain the role of the nervous system in regulating human reproduction.
37. Discuss the impact of environmental factors and lifestyle on human fertility.
38. Describe the process of gamete transport and viability in both males and females.
39. Explain the molecular events involved in sperm-egg interaction during fertilization.
40. Discuss the concept of reproductive aging in males and females.
41. Describe the various methods of contraception and their effectiveness.
42. Explain the mechanism of action of hormonal contraceptives.
43. Discuss the ethical dilemmas surrounding issues like surrogacy and genetic screening.
44. Describe the role of stem cells in reproductive biology and regenerative medicine.
45. Explain the process of cryopreservation of gametes and embryos.
46. Discuss the challenges and future directions in reproductive medicine.
47. Describe the impact of stress on reproductive health.
48. Explain the role of nutrition in reproductive health.
49. Discuss the importance of exercise in maintaining reproductive health.
50. Describe the effects of smoking and alcohol on fertility.
51. Explain the impact of environmental toxins on reproductive health.
52. Discuss the psychological aspects of infertility.
53. Describe the support systems available for infertile couples.
54. Explain the legal aspects of ART.
55. Discuss the concept of reproductive rights.
56. Describe the global burden of infertility.
57. Explain the strategies for preventing unintended pregnancies.
58. Discuss the importance of family planning.
59. Describe the role of government policies in reproductive health.
60. Explain the concept of maternal mortality and its prevention.
61. Discuss the importance of child spacing.
62. Describe the various methods of abortion and their legal status.
63. Explain the ethical considerations surrounding abortion.
64. Discuss the concept of reproductive cloning.
65. Describe the ethical concerns related to reproductive cloning.
66. Explain the concept of therapeutic cloning.
67. Discuss the ethical considerations related to therapeutic cloning.
68. Describe the role of genetics in reproductive health.
69. Explain the concept of genetic counseling.
70. Discuss the importance of genetic testing in reproductive health.
71. Describe the various genetic disorders affecting reproduction.
72. Explain the concept of preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD).
73. Discuss the ethical considerations related to PGD.
74. Describe the role of epigenetics in reproduction.
75. Explain the concept of transgenerational inheritance.
76. Discuss the impact of paternal age on reproductive outcomes.
77. Describe the impact of maternal age on reproductive outcomes.
78. Explain the concept of reproductive immunology.
79. Discuss the role of the immune system in pregnancy.
80. Describe the various immunological causes of infertility.
81. Explain the concept of recurrent pregnancy loss.
82. Discuss the causes and management of recurrent pregnancy loss.
83. Describe the role of inflammation in reproductive health.
84. Explain the concept of endometriosis.
85. Discuss the causes, symptoms, and management of endometriosis.
86. Describe the concept of polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS).
87. Discuss the causes, symptoms, and management of PCOS.
88. Explain the concept of uterine fibroids.
89. Discuss the causes, symptoms, and management of uterine fibroids.
90. Describe the concept of premature ovarian insufficiency (POI).
91. Discuss the causes, symptoms, and management of POI.
92. Explain the concept of male hypogonadism.
93. Discuss the causes, symptoms, and management of male hypogonadism.
94. Describe the concept of erectile dysfunction.
95. Discuss the causes, symptoms, and management of erectile dysfunction.
96. Explain the concept of ejaculatory disorders.
97. Discuss the causes, symptoms, and management of ejaculatory disorders.
98. Describe the role of lifestyle modifications in improving reproductive health.
99. Explain the importance of psychological support in infertility treatment.
100. Discuss the future of reproductive medicine and its potential impact on society.

Answer Key

Section A: Multiple Choice Questions (1 Mark Each)

1. c) Testis
2. b) Spermatogenesis
3. a) Ovaries, oviducts, uterus, vagina, external genitalia
4. d) Fallopian tube
5. c) Testosterone
6. c) Endometrium
7. b) Ovulation
8. a) Uterine tissue and fetal tissue
9. b) 9 months
10. c) Mammary glands
11. b) Nucleus
12. a) Enzymes for fertilization
13. c) Mitochondria
14. b) Puberty
15. c) Sertoli cells
16. b) Diploid
17. d) 4
18. b) Spermiogenesis
19. b) Ovary
20. b) Diploid
21. b) Oogenesis
22. a) Before birth
23. c) Metaphase II
24. b) Progesterone
25. c) 28 days
26. a) Growth of ovarian follicles
27. b) LH
28. a) Development of corpus luteum
29. b) Attachment of blastocyst to uterine wall
30. b) Trophoblast
31. b) Embryoblast
32. d) Gastrula
33. c) Gastrulation
34. b) Placenta
35. a) hCG
36. b) Amnion
37. c) Parturition
38. c) Oxytocin
39. b) Colostrum
40. a) A pair of testes, accessory ducts, glands, and external genitalia
41. b) It maintains a lower temperature for spermatogenesis
42. d) Both b and c
43. c) Leydig cells
44. a) Rete testis, vasa efferentia, epididymis, vas deferens
45. a) Seminal vesicles, prostate gland, bulbourethral glands
46. a) Fructose, calcium, and certain enzymes
47. a) A pair of ovaries, a pair of oviducts, a uterus, vagina, and external genitalia
48. a) Ligaments
49. c) Fallopian tubes
50. c) Infundibulum
51. c) Fimbriae
52. a) Womb
53. c) Cervix
54. a) Mons pubis, labia majora, labia minora, hymen, clitoris
55. b) Sweat glands
56. c) Gametogenesis
57. b) Diploid
58. a) Haploid
59. a) Haploid
60. c) Spermiation
61. b) Diploid
62. a) Primary follicle
63. a) Antrum
64. c) Zona pellucida
65. b) Ovulation
66. b) Breakdown of endometrial lining
67. b) Follicular phase
68. c) Luteal phase
69. c) Fertilization
70. b) Zygote
71. c) Cleavage
72. c) Morula
73. c) Implantation
74. c) Chorionic villi
75. c) Placenta
76. a) Endocrine gland
77. b) Fetus to the placenta
78. b) Stem cells
79. c) Gastrulation
80. c) Gestation
81. c) Both placenta and fully developed fetus
82. b) Oxytocin
83. c) Testis
84. b) Epididymis
85. b) Vas deferens
86. c) Seminal vesicle
87. c) Prostate gland
88. c) Ovary
89. c) Infundibulum
90. c) Uterus
91. b) Cervix
92. a) Mons pubis, labia majora, labia minora, clitoris
93. c) Clitoris
94. b) Oogenesis
95. c) Oogonia
96. a) Prophase I
97. d) Graafian follicle
98. b) Corpus luteum
99. b) Progesterone
100. b) Menopause

Section B: 1 Mark Short Answer Questions

1. Gametogenesis is the process of formation of gametes (sperms in males and ova in females).
2. The scrotum provides a lower temperature (2-2.5°C lower than body temperature) necessary for spermatogenesis.
3. Leydig cells (interstitial cells) secrete androgens, primarily testosterone.
4. Spermiogenesis is the process of transformation of non-motile spermatids into motile spermatozoa (sperms).
5. Spermatogenesis occurs in the seminiferous tubules of the testes.
6. The male accessory glands are the seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and bulbourethral glands (Cowper's glands).
7. Seminal plasma is the fluid part of semen, secreted by the male accessory glands, rich in fructose, calcium, and certain enzymes.
8. The female primary sex organ is the ovary.
9. Fimbriae are finger-like projections at the edge of the infundibulum (part of the fallopian tube) that help collect the ovum after ovulation.
10. The uterus is also known as the womb.
11. Menstruation is the monthly shedding of the uterine lining (endometrium) in females, occurring if fertilization does not take place.
12. Ovulation is the release of a mature ovum (secondary oocyte) from the Graafian follicle of the ovary.
13. The main hormones involved in the regulation of the menstrual cycle are GnRH, FSH, LH, estrogen, and progesterone.
14. Implantation is the process by which the blastocyst attaches to and embeds itself in the endometrium (inner lining) of the uterus.
15. Gestation period is the duration of pregnancy, from conception to birth, approximately 9 months (280 days) in humans.
16. Parturition is the process of childbirth, the expulsion of the fully developed fetus from the uterus.
17. Colostrum is the yellowish, antibody-rich fluid secreted by the mammary glands during the first few days after childbirth, providing immunity to the newborn.
18. The seminiferous tubules are lined by spermatogonia (sperm-forming cells) and Sertoli cells (nurse cells).
19. Sertoli cells provide nourishment to the developing sperms and secrete some hormones like inhibin.
20. The acrosome is a cap-like structure at the head of the sperm, containing hydrolytic enzymes (e.g., hyaluronidase, acrosin) essential for penetrating the egg during fertilization.
21. The middle piece of the sperm contains numerous mitochondria, which provide the energy for the movement of the sperm tail, essential for motility.
22. Oogenesis is the process of formation of a mature female gamete (ovum) from oogonia in the ovaries.
23. A Graafian follicle is the mature ovarian follicle, containing the secondary oocyte, ready for ovulation.
24. The corpus luteum is a temporary endocrine structure formed from the ruptured Graafian follicle after ovulation, which secretes progesterone.
25. The menstrual cycle consists of four phases: menstrual phase, follicular (proliferative) phase, ovulatory phase, and luteal (secretory) phase.
26. The LH surge is a rapid increase in Luteinizing Hormone (LH) secretion that triggers ovulation and the formation of the corpus luteum.
27. The zona pellucida is a non-cellular, transparent outer layer secreted by the secondary oocyte, which plays a crucial role in fertilization.
28. Cleavage refers to the rapid mitotic divisions of the zygote without significant growth in size, leading to the formation of a multicellular embryo.
29. A morula is a solid ball of 8-16 blastomeres (cells) formed during the early stages of embryonic development, resembling a mulberry.
30. A blastocyst is the embryonic stage that follows the morula, characterized by a fluid-filled cavity (blastocoel), an outer trophoblast layer, and an inner cell mass.
31. The trophoblast is the outer layer of cells of the blastocyst, which helps in implantation and forms the fetal part of the placenta.
32. The inner cell mass (embryoblast) is a cluster of cells within the blastocyst that differentiates to form the embryo proper.
33. Chorionic villi are finger-like projections that appear on the trophoblast after implantation, which interdigitate with uterine tissue to form the placenta.
34. The placenta serves as a structural and functional unit between the developing embryo (fetus) and the maternal body, facilitating nutrient supply, oxygen exchange, waste removal, and hormone secretion.
35. Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG) is a hormone secreted by the placenta, which maintains the corpus luteum and thus the pregnancy.
36. The amnion is a membrane that forms a fluid-filled sac (amniotic cavity) around the embryo, protecting it from shock and desiccation.
37. The umbilical cord is a cord-like structure that connects the fetus to the placenta, containing umbilical arteries and veins for exchange of substances.
38. The three germ layers formed during gastrulation are the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm.
39. Organogenesis is the process of formation and development of various organs and organ systems from the three primary germ layers during embryonic development.
40. Lactation is the process of milk production and secretion by the mammary glands after childbirth.
41. The male accessory ducts include the rete testis, vasa efferentia, epididymis, and vas deferens.
42. The rete testis is a network of tubules in the testis that collects sperms from the seminiferous tubules.
43. Vasa efferentia are small ducts that carry sperms from the rete testis to the epididymis.
44. The epididymis is a long, coiled tube located on the posterior surface of each testis, where sperms mature and are stored.
45. The vas deferens is a tube that carries sperms from the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct.
46. The ejaculatory duct is formed by the union of the vas deferens and the duct of the seminal vesicle, opening into the urethra.
47. In males, the urethra serves as a common passage for both urine and semen.
48. The female external genitalia (vulva) include the mons pubis, labia majora, labia minora, hymen, and clitoris.
49. The mons pubis is a cushion of fatty tissue covered by skin and pubic hair, located above the labia majora.
50. Labia majora are fleshy folds of tissue, which extend down from the mons pubis and surround the vaginal opening.
51. Labia minora are paired folds of tissue located under the labia majora.
52. The hymen is a membrane that partially covers the opening of the vagina.
53. The clitoris is a tiny, finger-like erectile structure located at the upper junction of the two labia minora, homologous to the penis.
54. Mammary glands are paired structures (breasts) that contain glandular tissue and variable amounts of fat, responsible for milk production.
55. Menarche is the first menstruation, which begins at puberty in females.
56. Menopause is the cessation of menstruation, typically occurring around 45-50 years of age in females.
57. A primary follicle consists of a primary oocyte surrounded by a single layer of granulosa cells.
58. A secondary follicle is formed when the primary follicle gets surrounded by more layers of granulosa cells and a new theca layer.
59. A tertiary follicle is characterized by the presence of a fluid-filled cavity called the antrum.
60. The antrum is the fluid-filled cavity that develops within the tertiary follicle.
61. The corona radiata is a layer of follicular cells that surrounds the zona pellucida of the ovum after ovulation.
62. The first polar body is a small, non-functional cell formed during the first meiotic division of the primary oocyte, which receives very little cytoplasm.
63. The second polar body is a small, non-functional cell formed during the second meiotic division of the secondary oocyte, which also receives very little cytoplasm.
64. Unequal cytokinesis in oogenesis ensures that the ovum receives almost all the cytoplasm and nutrients, while the polar bodies receive very little, making the ovum large and nutrient-rich.
65. In males, FSH (Follicle Stimulating Hormone) acts on Sertoli cells and stimulates the secretion of factors that help in spermatogenesis.
66. In males, LH (Luteinizing Hormone) acts on Leydig cells and stimulates the synthesis and secretion of androgens (testosterone).
67. In females, FSH stimulates the growth and development of ovarian follicles.
68. In females, LH stimulates ovulation and the formation of the corpus luteum.
69. Estrogen, secreted by growing follicles, stimulates the proliferation of the endometrium and the development of female secondary sexual characteristics.
70. Progesterone, secreted by the corpus luteum, maintains the endometrium for implantation and pregnancy.
71. The corpus luteum is crucial for maintaining pregnancy by secreting progesterone, which is essential for the maintenance of the uterine lining.
72. If fertilization does not occur, the corpus luteum degenerates, leading to a sharp fall in progesterone levels, which causes the disintegration of the endometrium and menstruation.
73. During pregnancy, the corpus luteum persists and continues to secrete progesterone under the influence of hCG (human Chorionic Gonadotropin) from the placenta.
74. The decidua is the modified endometrium of the uterus during pregnancy, which forms the maternal part of the placenta.
75. The umbilical arteries carry deoxygenated blood and waste products from the fetus to the placenta, while the umbilical vein carries oxygenated blood and nutrients from the placenta to the fetus.
76. Relaxin is a hormone secreted by the ovary and placenta during pregnancy, which relaxes the pelvic ligaments and widens the cervix to facilitate parturition.
77. The fetal ejection reflex is a mild uterine contraction initiated by signals from the fully developed fetus and the placenta, which triggers the release of oxytocin.
78. Oxytocin stimulates the contraction of myoepithelial cells surrounding the alveoli in the mammary glands, leading to milk ejection (let-down reflex).
79. Breastfeeding provides optimal nutrition for the newborn, transfers antibodies from the mother (passive immunity), promotes bonding, and helps the mother's uterus to contract.
80. Spermatogenesis is the entire process of sperm formation from spermatogonia, while spermiogenesis is specifically the final stage where spermatids transform into mature spermatozoa.
81. Primary sexual characteristics are the reproductive organs themselves (testes, ovaries). Secondary sexual characteristics are external features that distinguish males and females but are not directly involved in reproduction (e.g., body hair, voice pitch).
82. The blood-testis barrier is a physical barrier formed by tight junctions between Sertoli cells, which protects developing sperm from the immune system and harmful substances in the blood.
83. Capacitation is the physiological maturation of sperm in the female reproductive tract, which enables them to fertilize an egg.
84. The cortical reaction is a process that occurs after a sperm binds to the egg, where cortical granules release enzymes that modify the zona pellucida, preventing polyspermy.
85. Polyspermy is the fertilization of an egg by more than one sperm, which is usually lethal for the embryo.
86. The zona pellucida is crucial in fertilization as it contains specific receptors for sperm binding and undergoes changes (cortical reaction) after the first sperm entry to block polyspermy.
87. A morula is a solid ball of cells (8-16 blastomeres), while a blastocyst is a hollow ball of cells with a fluid-filled cavity (blastocoel), an outer trophoblast, and an inner cell mass.
88. Gastrulation is the process during early embryonic development where the inner cell mass differentiates into three primary germ layers: ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm.
89. The three germ layers are significant because all the tissues and organs of the adult body develop from these specific layers.
90. The embryonic period is from fertilization to the end of the 8th week, during which major organs form. The fetal period is from the 9th week until birth, characterized by growth and maturation of organs.
91. Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG) is a hormone secreted by the trophoblast after implantation. It maintains the corpus luteum, ensuring continued progesterone secretion to support the pregnancy.
92. Morning sickness is nausea and vomiting that commonly occurs during the first trimester of pregnancy, often attributed to hormonal changes.
93. Quickening refers to the first fetal movements felt by the mother, usually occurring around the 5th month of pregnancy.
94. True labor involves regular, strong uterine contractions that lead to cervical dilation and effacement. False labor (Braxton Hicks contractions) are irregular, weaker contractions that do not cause cervical changes.
95. The stages of labor are: 1. Dilation (cervix dilates). 2. Expulsion (fetus is delivered). 3. Placental (placenta is expelled).
96. Episiotomy is a surgical incision made in the perineum (area between vagina and anus) during childbirth to enlarge the vaginal opening and prevent tearing.
97. A Cesarean section (C-section) is a surgical procedure to deliver the baby through an incision in the mother's abdomen and uterus.
98. Infertility is the inability to conceive after 12 months of regular, unprotected intercourse.
99. Assisted Reproductive Technologies (ART) are medical procedures used to help infertile couples conceive, such as IVF, ZIFT, GIFT, and ICSI.
100. IVF-ET (In Vitro Fertilization and Embryo Transfer) is an ART where fertilization occurs outside the body (in vitro), and the resulting embryo is transferred into the uterus.

Section C: 2 Marks Questions

1. A human sperm is a microscopic structure composed of a head, neck, middle piece, and tail. The head contains the haploid nucleus and is capped by the acrosome. The middle piece contains numerous mitochondria for energy, and the tail provides motility.
2. Leydig cells (interstitial cells) are located in the interstitial spaces outside the seminiferous tubules. They synthesize and secrete androgens, primarily testosterone, which is essential for spermatogenesis. Sertoli cells (nurse cells) are present inside the seminiferous tubules and provide nourishment to the developing sperms. They also secrete factors that help in spermiogenesis and form the blood-testis barrier.
3. Sperms are produced in the seminiferous tubules. From there, they move into the rete testis, then through the vasa efferentia to the epididymis, where they mature and are stored. From the epididymis, sperms are transported through the vas deferens, which joins with the duct of the seminal vesicle to form the ejaculatory duct. The ejaculatory duct then opens into the urethra, which carries sperms out of the body.
4. The male accessory glands (seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and bulbourethral glands) secrete seminal plasma. Seminal vesicles contribute fructose (energy for sperm), prostaglandins, and clotting proteins. The prostate gland secretes a milky, slightly acidic fluid that activates sperm. Bulbourethral glands secrete a lubricating fluid that neutralizes acidity in the urethra.
5. A human ovum (egg) is a large, non-motile, spherical cell. It is surrounded by a transparent, non-cellular zona pellucida and an outer layer of follicular cells called the corona radiata. It contains a large nucleus and abundant cytoplasm with stored nutrients.
6. Oogenesis begins during fetal development when oogonia (diploid germ cells) proliferate by mitosis. They then enter meiosis I and get arrested at prophase I, forming primary oocytes. These primary oocytes are then surrounded by granulosa cells to form primary follicles. No further oogonia are formed after birth.
7. During the follicular phase, under the influence of FSH, several primary follicles grow and develop. They transform into secondary follicles, then tertiary follicles (characterized by the fluid-filled antrum), and finally, one mature Graafian follicle. The growing follicles secrete estrogen.
8. Spermatogenesis is regulated by hormones from the hypothalamus, pituitary, and testes. GnRH from the hypothalamus stimulates the pituitary to release LH and FSH. LH acts on Leydig cells to secrete testosterone, which stimulates spermatogenesis. FSH acts on Sertoli cells to secrete factors that aid in spermiogenesis.
9. The menstrual cycle is regulated by GnRH from the hypothalamus, which stimulates the anterior pituitary to release FSH and LH. FSH primarily stimulates follicular growth and estrogen secretion. LH triggers ovulation and the formation of the corpus luteum, which secretes progesterone. Estrogen and progesterone, in turn, exert feedback control on GnRH, FSH, and LH.
10. Ovulation is triggered by a surge in LH (LH surge) around the middle of the menstrual cycle (day 14). The LH surge induces the rupture of the mature Graafian follicle, releasing the secondary oocyte from the ovary. It also initiates the transformation of the ruptured follicle into the corpus luteum.
11. The uterus undergoes cyclical changes during the menstrual cycle. In the menstrual phase, the endometrial lining breaks down and is shed. In the proliferative phase, under estrogen's influence, the endometrium regenerates and thickens. In the secretory phase, under progesterone's influence, the endometrium becomes highly vascularized and glandular, preparing for implantation.
12. Fertilization is the fusion of a sperm and an ovum, typically occurring in the ampulla of the fallopian tube. Sperm undergo capacitation in the female tract. Upon encountering the egg, the sperm undergoes an acrosome reaction, releasing enzymes to penetrate the corona radiata and zona pellucida. The sperm then fuses with the egg membrane, leading to the completion of meiosis II by the egg and the formation of a diploid zygote.
13. The acrosome reaction allows the sperm to release enzymes that digest the egg's outer layers (corona radiata and zona pellucida), enabling sperm penetration. The cortical reaction, triggered by sperm entry, involves the release of cortical granules that modify the zona pellucula, preventing any further sperm from entering (block to polyspermy).
14. Cleavage refers to the rapid mitotic divisions of the zygote as it moves through the fallopian tube. These divisions increase the number of cells (blastomeres) without increasing the overall size of the embryo. After 3-4 days, a solid ball of 8-16 blastomeres, resembling a mulberry, is formed, called the morula.
15. The morula continues to divide and develops into a blastocyst. The blastocyst is a hollow ball of cells with a fluid-filled cavity (blastocoel). It consists of an outer layer of cells called the trophoblast and an inner cell mass (embryoblast). The trophoblast helps in implantation, and the inner cell mass forms the embryo proper.
16. Implantation is the process by which the blastocyst attaches to and embeds itself in the endometrium of the uterus. This usually occurs about 7 days after fertilization. The trophoblast cells of the blastocyst adhere to the uterine wall and secrete enzymes that help it burrow into the endometrium.
17. The placenta is a temporary organ that forms during pregnancy, connecting the mother and the developing fetus. It is formed by the interdigitation of chorionic villi (from the fetus) and uterine tissue. Its functions include facilitating nutrient and oxygen exchange, waste removal, and hormone secretion like hCG, hPL, estrogen, and progesterone.
18. The umbilical cord is a flexible, tube-like structure that connects the fetus to the placenta. It contains two umbilical arteries (carrying deoxygenated blood and waste from fetus to placenta) and one umbilical vein (carrying oxygenated blood and nutrients from placenta to fetus). It is the lifeline between the mother and the developing baby.
19. Gastrulation is a critical process during early embryonic development where the inner cell mass differentiates and reorganizes to form the three primary germ layers: ectoderm (outer), mesoderm (middle), and endoderm (inner). These germ layers are fundamental as all tissues and organs of the adult body develop from them.
20. During the first trimester (weeks 1-12), major organ systems begin to form (organogenesis). The heart starts beating, limbs develop, and the brain and spinal cord form. The embryo transforms into a fetus by the end of this trimester, though it is still very small.
21. The second trimester (weeks 13-27) is characterized by rapid growth and maturation of organs. The fetus becomes more active, and the mother can feel its movements (quickening). Hair, eyelashes, and eyebrows appear. The sex of the baby can often be determined by ultrasound.
22. The third trimester (weeks 28-40) is primarily a period of rapid weight gain and final maturation of organs, especially the lungs. The fetus prepares for birth, turning into a head-down position. The mother experiences increased discomfort and prepares for labor.
23. Parturition is initiated by complex neuroendocrine mechanisms. Signals from the fully developed fetus and the placenta induce mild uterine contractions (fetal ejection reflex). This triggers the release of oxytocin from the maternal pituitary, which causes stronger uterine contractions, leading to labor.
24. Lactation is the production and secretion of milk by mammary glands. It is primarily regulated by prolactin, which stimulates milk synthesis, and oxytocin, which causes milk ejection (let-down reflex) in response to suckling. Breast milk provides complete nutrition and antibodies to the infant.
25. Colostrum is the first milk produced by the mother, rich in antibodies (IgA), proteins, and vitamins. It provides passive immunity to the newborn, protecting them from infections, and also helps in the development of the infant's digestive system.
26. Spermatogenesis is the continuous process of sperm formation in males, producing millions of sperms. Oogenesis is the discontinuous process of ovum formation in females, producing only one ovum per cycle. Spermatogenesis produces four functional gametes from one primary spermatocyte, while oogenesis produces one functional ovum and polar bodies from one primary oocyte.
27. The male reproductive system is designed for continuous sperm production and delivery, with external testes for temperature regulation. The female system is designed for cyclical egg production, fertilization, and nurturing a developing embryo/fetus internally. Both systems are hormonally regulated, but the patterns and specific hormones differ significantly.
28. Seminiferous tubules are highly coiled structures located within the testes. They are the sites of spermatogenesis, where sperm are produced. They are lined by spermatogonia and Sertoli cells.
29. The epididymis is a long, coiled tube located on the posterior side of each testis. It serves as the site for sperm maturation, where sperms acquire motility and fertilizing capacity. It also stores sperms before ejaculation.
30. The fallopian tubes (oviducts) are paired tubes extending from the uterus to near the ovaries. They consist of the infundibulum (funnel-shaped with fimbriae), ampulla (site of fertilization), and isthmus (narrow part joining uterus). They transport the ovum from the ovary to the uterus.
31. The uterus is a hollow, muscular, pear-shaped organ located in the pelvic cavity. Its primary function is to receive the fertilized egg, provide a site for implantation, and support the development of the embryo and fetus throughout pregnancy. Its muscular walls contract during parturition.
32. The ovary is the primary female sex organ, located in the pelvic cavity. It produces female gametes (ova) through oogenesis and secretes female sex hormones, estrogen and progesterone, which regulate the menstrual cycle and secondary sexual characteristics.
33. The hypothalamus secretes GnRH, which stimulates the anterior pituitary. The anterior pituitary then secretes FSH and LH. These gonadotropins act on the gonads (testes/ovaries) to stimulate gamete production and hormone secretion, forming a crucial part of the neuroendocrine regulation of reproduction.
34. In males, GnRH stimulates LH and FSH release. LH stimulates Leydig cells to produce testosterone. FSH and testosterone stimulate spermatogenesis. Testosterone and inhibin (from Sertoli cells) provide negative feedback to the hypothalamus and pituitary, regulating hormone levels.
35. In females, GnRH stimulates FSH and LH release. FSH stimulates follicular growth and estrogen secretion. LH triggers ovulation and corpus luteum formation, which secretes progesterone. Estrogen and progesterone provide negative feedback, but estrogen can also exert positive feedback leading to the LH surge.
36. The primary oocyte, arrested in Prophase I since fetal life, resumes meiosis I just before ovulation. It completes meiosis I, resulting in a large secondary oocyte and a small first polar body. The secondary oocyte then proceeds to Metaphase II and is released during ovulation.
37. If fertilization occurs, the corpus luteum persists due to hCG secreted by the trophoblast. It continues to secrete progesterone, maintaining the pregnancy. If fertilization does not occur, the corpus luteum degenerates after about 14 days, leading to a drop in progesterone and the onset of menstruation.
38. During the secretory (luteal) phase, under the influence of progesterone from the corpus luteum, the endometrium becomes highly vascularized, glandular, and thick. The endometrial glands secrete uterine milk, making the uterus receptive for implantation of the blastocyst.
39. Capacitation is a series of physiological changes that sperms undergo in the female reproductive tract (uterus and fallopian tubes) before they can fertilize an egg. These changes involve alterations in the sperm membrane that enable them to undergo the acrosome reaction and become hyperactive.
40. The block to polyspermy is a mechanism that prevents multiple sperms from fertilizing a single egg. It involves two main events: a fast block (depolarization of the egg membrane) and a slow block (cortical reaction), where enzymes released from cortical granules modify the zona pellucula, preventing any further sperm from entering (block to polyspermy).
41. Blastulation is the process of forming a blastocyst from a morula. As the morula enters the uterus, fluid seeps into it, creating a central cavity called the blastocoel. The cells rearrange to form an outer trophoblast layer and an inner cell mass, thus forming the blastocyst.
42. The inner cell mass (embryoblast) of the blastocyst differentiates into the epiblast and hypoblast, forming a bilaminar embryonic disc. The epiblast gives rise to the three primary germ layers (ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm) during gastrulation, which will form all the tissues and organs of the embryo.
43. The amniotic cavity forms within the epiblast, filling with amniotic fluid that cushions and protects the embryo. The yolk sac forms from the hypoblast and is involved in early blood cell formation and nutrient transfer before the placenta is fully functional.
44. The chorion is the outermost extraembryonic membrane, formed from the trophoblast and extraembryonic mesoderm. It develops chorionic villi that contribute to the placenta. The amnion is the inner membrane that encloses the amniotic cavity, providing a protective environment for the embryo.
45. Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) is a glycoprotein hormone secreted by the trophoblast cells of the blastocyst after implantation. Its primary role is to maintain the corpus luteum, preventing its degeneration and ensuring the continued secretion of progesterone, which is essential for maintaining the uterine lining and preventing menstruation.
46. During pregnancy, the mother's body undergoes significant physiological changes. These include increased blood volume, cardiac output, and respiratory rate. The kidneys work harder, and the digestive system may experience nausea and constipation. Hormonal changes lead to breast enlargement and uterine growth.
47. Labor is divided into three stages. Stage 1 (dilation) involves regular uterine contractions that cause the cervix to efface (thin) and dilate (open). Stage 2 (expulsion) begins when the cervix is fully dilated and ends with the delivery of the baby. Stage 3 (placental) involves the delivery of the placenta after the baby is born.
48. Breastfeeding provides optimal nutrition for the baby, containing all necessary nutrients and antibodies for immunity. For the mother, it helps the uterus contract, reduces postpartum bleeding, and lowers the risk of certain cancers. It also promotes bonding between mother and baby.
49. Causes of male infertility can include low sperm count (oligospermia), poor sperm motility (asthenozoospermia), abnormal sperm morphology (teratozoospermia), blockages in the reproductive tract, hormonal imbalances, genetic factors, and lifestyle factors (e.g., smoking, excessive heat).
50. Causes of female infertility can include ovulatory disorders (e.g., PCOS), blocked fallopian tubes (due to PID or endometriosis), uterine abnormalities (e.g., fibroids), endometriosis, hormonal imbalances, and age-related decline in egg quality and quantity.
51. In Vitro Fertilization (IVF) is an Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART) where eggs are retrieved from the woman's ovaries and fertilized by sperm in a laboratory dish (in vitro). The resulting embryos are then cultured for a few days before being transferred into the woman's uterus.
52. Zygote Intrafallopian Transfer (ZIFT) is an ART where eggs are fertilized in vitro, and the resulting zygotes (fertilized eggs) are immediately transferred into the fallopian tube, allowing natural transport to the uterus for implantation.
53. Gamete Intrafallopian Transfer (GIFT) is an ART where eggs and sperm are collected and then directly transferred into the fallopian tube, allowing fertilization to occur naturally inside the woman's body. It requires at least one healthy fallopian tube.
54. Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection (ICSI) is a specialized IVF procedure where a single sperm is directly injected into an egg. It is particularly useful in cases of severe male infertility (e.g., very low sperm count or poor motility) or when previous IVF attempts have failed.
55. Ethical considerations in ART include the moral status of embryos, selective reduction (reducing the number of fetuses in multiple pregnancies), genetic screening of embryos, surrogacy, and the potential for designer babies. These raise complex questions about life, parenthood, and societal values.
56. Prostaglandins are lipid compounds that act like hormones. In reproduction, they are involved in various processes: they stimulate uterine contractions during menstruation and parturition, play a role in sperm motility, and are involved in ovulation and corpus luteum regression.
57. The blood-testis barrier is a physiological barrier formed by tight junctions between Sertoli cells, which protects developing sperm from the immune system and harmful substances in the blood.
58. Spermiation is the process by which mature spermatozoa are released from the Sertoli cells into the lumen of the seminiferous tubules. This is the final step of spermatogenesis before sperms are transported to the epididymis for maturation.
59. Inhibin is a hormone secreted by Sertoli cells in males (and granulosa cells in females). In males, it selectively inhibits the secretion of FSH from the anterior pituitary, providing a negative feedback mechanism to regulate spermatogenesis.
60. A mature ovarian follicle (Graafian follicle) is a large, fluid-filled structure containing a secondary oocyte. It consists of several layers of granulosa cells, a fluid-filled antrum, and two layers of theca cells (theca interna and theca externa).
61. If fertilization does not occur, the corpus luteum degenerates after about 14 days. It transforms into a small, white scar tissue called the corpus albicans, which marks the end of the luteal phase and leads to menstruation.
62. Menopause is characterized by a decline in ovarian function, leading to a decrease in estrogen and progesterone production. This results in elevated FSH and LH levels (due to lack of negative feedback) and the cessation of menstrual cycles.
63. Estrogen is the primary female sex hormone. It is responsible for the development of female secondary sexual characteristics (e.g., breast development, widening of hips), stimulates the growth and proliferation of the endometrium, and plays a role in bone density and cardiovascular health.
64. Progesterone is a steroid hormone primarily secreted by the corpus luteum. Its main role is to prepare and maintain the uterine lining (endometrium) for implantation and pregnancy. It also inhibits uterine contractions and suppresses the immune response to the fetus.
65. Relaxin is a hormone produced by the corpus luteum and placenta during pregnancy. It helps to relax the ligaments in the pelvis and soften the cervix, making it easier for the baby to pass through the birth canal during parturition.
66. Embryonic stem cells are pluripotent cells derived from the inner cell mass of a blastocyst. They have the ability to differentiate into any cell type of the body. Their differentiation is guided by specific growth factors and signaling molecules in their environment.
67. Totipotency is the ability of a single cell (like a zygote) to differentiate into all cell types, including extraembryonic tissues. Pluripotency is the ability of a cell (like an embryonic stem cell) to differentiate into all cell types of the three germ layers, but not extraembryonic tissues.
68. The neural tube develops from the ectoderm during neurulation. It forms the brain and spinal cord. Defects in neural tube closure can lead to conditions like spina bifida.
69. Somites are segmented blocks of mesoderm that form along the neural tube. They differentiate into various structures, including vertebrae, ribs, skeletal muscles of the trunk and limbs, and dermis of the skin.
70. The heart begins to develop from mesoderm cells around the third week of gestation. It starts as a simple tube that folds and septates to form the four-chambered heart, becoming functional and beginning to beat by the fourth week.
71. Limb buds appear around the fourth week of gestation. They develop from the lateral plate mesoderm and are patterned by signaling molecules like FGF and Sonic Hedgehog, leading to the formation of bones, muscles, and connective tissues of the upper and lower limbs.
72. The face develops from five facial prominences that fuse during the 4th to 10th weeks of gestation. Failure of these prominences to fuse properly can result in congenital anomalies like cleft lip and palate.
73. The brain develops from the anterior part of the neural tube. It undergoes rapid growth and differentiation, forming the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain, which further develop into the cerebrum, cerebellum, brainstem, and other structures.
74. The eyes develop from outgrowths of the forebrain (optic vesicles) and ectoderm. The ears develop from ectodermal thickenings (otic placodes) that invaginate to form the inner ear, while the middle and outer ear develop from pharyngeal arches.
75. The digestive system develops from the endoderm, forming the primitive gut tube. Outgrowths from this tube give rise to organs like the liver, pancreas, and gallbladder. The mesoderm forms the muscular and connective tissue layers of the gut wall.
76. The respiratory system develops as an outgrowth from the foregut endoderm. The trachea, bronchi, and lungs form from this outgrowth, undergoing extensive branching and differentiation to form the complex alveolar structure necessary for gas exchange.
77. The urinary system develops from the intermediate mesoderm. The kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra form sequentially, with the kidneys becoming functional and producing urine by the end of the first trimester.
78. The reproductive organs develop from the intermediate mesoderm and primordial germ cells. Initially, both male and female embryos have indifferent gonads. The presence or absence of the SRY gene on the Y chromosome determines whether the gonad develops into a testis or an ovary.
79. Sex determination in humans is chromosomal. Individuals with XX chromosomes are typically female, and those with XY chromosomes are typically male. The presence of the SRY gene on the Y chromosome is the key factor that triggers male development.
80. The SRY (Sex-determining Region Y) gene is located on the Y chromosome. Its presence initiates the development of the indifferent gonad into a testis. In the absence of SRY, the gonad develops into an ovary.
81. Fraternal (dizygotic) twins result from the fertilization of two separate eggs by two separate sperms. They are genetically as similar as any other siblings. Identical (monozygotic) twins result from the splitting of a single fertilized egg (zygote) into two embryos. They are genetically identical.
82. Conjoined twins occur when a single fertilized egg fails to completely separate into two distinct embryos during early development. The extent of fusion varies, leading to different types of conjoined twins depending on which body parts are shared.
83. Ectopic pregnancy occurs when a fertilized egg implants outside the uterus, most commonly in the fallopian tube. It can also occur in the ovary, abdomen, or cervix. It is a medical emergency as the pregnancy cannot survive and can cause severe internal bleeding.
84. Preeclampsia is a serious pregnancy complication characterized by high blood pressure and signs of damage to another organ system, most often the liver and kidneys. Symptoms include severe headaches, vision changes, and swelling. It can lead to eclampsia, which involves seizures.
85. Gestational diabetes is a type of diabetes that develops during pregnancy in women who did not have diabetes before. It is caused by insulin resistance due to pregnancy hormones. Symptoms are often mild, but it can lead to complications for both mother and baby if not managed.
86. Prenatal care is essential for a healthy pregnancy outcome. It involves regular medical check-ups, monitoring maternal and fetal health, nutritional counseling, screening for potential complications, and preparing for childbirth. It helps detect and manage issues early.
87. Birth control methods include hormonal methods (pills, patches, injections, implants), barrier methods (condoms, diaphragms), intrauterine devices (IUDs), natural family planning, and permanent methods (vasectomy, tubal ligation).
88. Oral contraceptives (birth control pills) primarily work by releasing synthetic estrogen and progesterone, which inhibit the release of FSH and LH from the pituitary. This prevents ovulation and also thickens cervical mucus (blocking sperm) and thins the uterine lining (preventing implantation).
89. Intrauterine devices (IUDs) are small, T-shaped devices inserted into the uterus. Hormonal IUDs release progestin, which thickens cervical mucus and thins the uterine lining. Copper IUDs cause an inflammatory reaction in the uterus that is toxic to sperm and eggs, preventing fertilization and implantation.
90. Vasectomy is a permanent male birth control method. It involves surgically cutting or sealing the vas deferens, which are the tubes that carry sperm from the testes. This prevents sperm from mixing with semen during ejaculation, making the man sterile.
91. Tubal ligation is a permanent female birth control method. It involves surgically cutting, tying, or sealing the fallopian tubes. This prevents eggs from traveling from the ovaries to the uterus and blocks sperm from reaching the egg, thus preventing fertilization.
92. Common sexually transmitted infections (STIs) include Chlamydia, Gonorrhea, Syphilis, Herpes, HPV (Human Papillomavirus), and HIV/AIDS. They are spread primarily through sexual contact.
93. Methods of preventing STIs include abstinence, consistent and correct use of condoms, limiting the number of sexual partners, getting tested regularly, and vaccination (e.g., for HPV).
94. Chlamydia is a common bacterial STI. Symptoms are often mild or absent, but can include abnormal discharge, painful urination, and pelvic pain. Untreated Chlamydia can lead to pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) in women, causing infertility and ectopic pregnancy.
95. Gonorrhea is a bacterial STI. Symptoms can include painful urination, abnormal discharge, and pelvic pain. Like Chlamydia, untreated Gonorrhea can lead to PID, infertility, and can also affect joints, heart, and other body parts.
96. Syphilis is a bacterial STI that progresses through stages. Primary syphilis involves a painless sore (chancre). Secondary syphilis involves a rash and flu-like symptoms. Tertiary syphilis can cause severe damage to the heart, brain, and other organs. It is curable with antibiotics.
97. Herpes is a viral STI caused by HSV. It causes painful blisters and sores, primarily on the genitals or mouth. It is a lifelong infection, with recurrent outbreaks. There is no cure, but antiviral medications can manage symptoms and reduce outbreaks.
98. HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) is a viral infection that attacks the immune system. AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome) is the late stage of HIV infection. HIV is transmitted through specific body fluids. There is no cure, but antiretroviral therapy can manage the virus and prevent progression to AIDS.
99. Sexual health education is crucial for empowering individuals to make informed decisions about their sexual health. It provides knowledge about anatomy, reproduction, contraception, STIs, consent, and healthy relationships, promoting responsible sexual behavior and well-being.
100. Ethical considerations in human reproduction include issues like access to ART, genetic selection, surrogacy, embryo research, and the rights of gamete donors and offspring. These topics often involve balancing individual autonomy with societal values and moral principles.

Section D: 3 Marks Broad Questions

1. Describe the detailed structure of the male reproductive system with a labeled diagram.
2. Explain the process of spermatogenesis in detail, including the different cell types and meiotic divisions.
3. Describe the hormonal control of the male reproductive system, including the roles of GnRH, LH, FSH, and testosterone.
4. Describe the detailed structure of the female reproductive system with a labeled diagram.
5. Explain the process of oogenesis in detail, including the different stages and meiotic divisions.
6. Discuss the hormonal control of the female reproductive system, including the roles of GnRH, FSH, LH, estrogen, and progesterone.
7. Explain the events of the menstrual cycle, correlating the ovarian and uterine events with hormonal changes.
8. Describe the process of fertilization, including the events leading to the fusion of gametes and the prevention of polyspermy.
9. Explain the early embryonic development from zygote to implantation, including cleavage, morula, and blastocyst formation.
10. Describe the formation, structure, and functions of the placenta.
11. Explain the process of gastrulation and the significance of the three germ layers in embryonic development.
12. Describe the major developmental events that occur during the first, second, and third trimesters of human pregnancy.
13. Explain the process of parturition, including the hormonal signals and the stages of labor.
14. Describe the process of lactation, including the hormonal regulation and the composition and benefits of breast milk.
15. Compare and contrast spermatogenesis and oogenesis, highlighting their similarities and differences.
16. Discuss the various methods of birth control, explaining their mechanisms of action and effectiveness.
17. Describe the common causes of infertility in males and females.
18. Explain the principles and applications of various Assisted Reproductive Technologies (ART), such as IVF, ZIFT, GIFT, and ICSI.
19. Discuss the ethical and social issues associated with human reproductive health and technologies.
20. Describe the structure and functions of the male accessory ducts and glands.
21. Explain the structure and functions of the female accessory ducts and glands.
22. Describe the detailed structure of the human testis, including seminiferous tubules, Sertoli cells, and Leydig cells.
23. Explain the detailed structure of the human ovary, including follicles at various stages of development.
24. Describe the process of ovulation and the formation of the corpus luteum.
25. Explain the hormonal feedback loops that regulate the male reproductive system.
26. Describe the hormonal feedback loops that regulate the female reproductive system.
27. Discuss the physiological changes that occur in the female body during pregnancy.
28. Explain the role of various hormones (e.g., hCG, hPL, relaxin) during pregnancy.
29. Describe the development of the extraembryonic membranes (amnion, chorion, yolk sac, allantois) and their functions.
30. Explain the process of organogenesis, giving examples of major organ system development.
31. Discuss the factors that can affect fetal development and lead to birth defects.
32. Describe the importance of prenatal diagnosis and screening tests during pregnancy.
33. Explain the different types of twins (monozygotic and dizygotic) and their formation.
34. Discuss the various sexually transmitted infections (STIs), their causes, symptoms, and prevention.
35. Describe the importance of reproductive health education and awareness programs.
36. Explain the role of the nervous system in regulating human reproduction.
37. Discuss the impact of environmental factors and lifestyle on human fertility.
38. Describe the process of gamete transport and viability in both males and females.
39. Explain the molecular events involved in sperm-egg interaction during fertilization.
40. Discuss the concept of reproductive aging in males and females.
41. Describe the various methods of contraception and their effectiveness.
42. Explain the mechanism of action of hormonal contraceptives.
43. Discuss the ethical dilemmas surrounding issues like surrogacy and genetic screening.
44. Describe the role of stem cells in reproductive biology and regenerative medicine.
45. Explain the process of cryopreservation of gametes and embryos.
46. Discuss the challenges and future directions in reproductive medicine.
47. Describe the impact of stress on reproductive health.
48. Explain the role of nutrition in reproductive health.
49. Discuss the importance of exercise in maintaining reproductive health.
50. Describe the effects of smoking and alcohol on fertility.
51. Explain the impact of environmental toxins on reproductive health.
52. Discuss the psychological aspects of infertility.
53. Describe the support systems available for infertile couples.
54. Explain the legal aspects of ART.
55. Discuss the concept of reproductive rights.
56. Describe the global burden of infertility.
57. Explain the strategies for preventing unintended pregnancies.
58. Discuss the importance of family planning.
59. Describe the role of government policies in reproductive health.
60. Explain the concept of maternal mortality and its prevention.
61. Discuss the importance of child spacing.
62. Describe the various methods of abortion and their legal status.
63. Explain the ethical considerations surrounding abortion.
64. Discuss the concept of reproductive cloning.
65. Describe the ethical concerns related to reproductive cloning.
66. Explain the concept of therapeutic cloning.
67. Discuss the ethical considerations related to therapeutic cloning.
68. Describe the role of genetics in reproductive health.
69. Explain the concept of genetic counseling.
70. Discuss the importance of genetic testing in reproductive health.
71. Describe the various genetic disorders affecting reproduction.
72. Explain the concept of preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD).
73. Discuss the ethical considerations related to PGD.
74. Describe the role of epigenetics in reproduction.
75. Explain the concept of transgenerational inheritance.
76. Discuss the impact of paternal age on reproductive outcomes.
77. Describe the impact of maternal age on reproductive outcomes.
78. Explain the concept of reproductive immunology.
79. Discuss the role of the immune system in pregnancy.
80. Describe the various immunological causes of infertility.
81. Explain the concept of recurrent pregnancy loss.
82. Discuss the causes and management of recurrent pregnancy loss.
83. Describe the role of inflammation in reproductive health.
84. Explain the concept of endometriosis.
85. Discuss the causes, symptoms, and management of endometriosis.
86. Describe the concept of polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS).
87. Discuss the causes, symptoms, and management of PCOS.
88. Explain the concept of uterine fibroids.
89. Discuss the causes, symptoms, and management of uterine fibroids.
90. Describe the concept of premature ovarian insufficiency (POI).
91. Discuss the causes, symptoms, and management of POI.
92. Explain the concept of male hypogonadism.
93. Discuss the causes, symptoms, and management of male hypogonadism.
94. Describe the concept of erectile dysfunction.
95. Discuss the causes, symptoms, and management of erectile dysfunction.
96. Explain the concept of ejaculatory disorders.
97. Discuss the causes, symptoms, and management of ejaculatory disorders.
98. Describe the role of lifestyle modifications in improving reproductive health.
99. Explain the importance of psychological support in infertility treatment.
100. Discuss the future of reproductive medicine and its potential impact on society.