Examples: Diabetes, heart disease, cancer, arthritis
Characteristics: Often result from lifestyle factors, genetics, or environmental conditions

Endemic Diseases

Diseases that are constantly present in a particular geographic area or population.

Examples: Malaria in tropical regions, goiter in iodine-deficient areas
Characteristics: Occur at predictable rates in specific locations

Epidemic Diseases

Diseases that spread rapidly and affect many people in a community or region simultaneously.

Examples: Seasonal flu outbreaks, dengue fever during monsoon
Characteristics: Sudden increase in disease cases above normal expected levels

Pandemic Diseases

Diseases that spread across multiple countries or continents, affecting large numbers of people worldwide.

Examples: COVID-19, HIV/AIDS, 1918 influenza pandemic
Characteristics: Global spread with significant health impact

Sporadic Diseases

Diseases that occur irregularly and infrequently in a population.

Examples: Tetanus, rabies, food poisoning cases
Characteristics: Random occurrence with no predictable pattern

Modes of Transmission

Airborne Transmission

Disease-causing organisms spread through air via droplets or dust particles.

Mechanism: Coughing, sneezing, talking release infected droplets
Examples: Tuberculosis, common cold, COVID-19, chickenpox
Prevention: Face masks, proper ventilation, maintaining distance

Waterborne Transmission

Pathogens spread through contaminated water sources.

Mechanism: Drinking, bathing, or contact with contaminated water
Examples: Cholera, typhoid, hepatitis A, dysentery
Prevention: Water purification, proper sanitation, avoiding contaminated sources

Vector-borne Transmission

Disease transmission through living carriers (vectors).

Common Vectors:

Mosquitoes: Carry malaria, dengue, chikungunya, filariasis
Houseflies: Transmit cholera, typhoid, dysentery through contaminated food
Cockroaches: Spread bacteria causing food poisoning and gastroenteritis
Prevention: Vector control, use of nets, maintaining cleanliness

(iii) Specific Diseases by Causative Agent

Bacterial Diseases

Cholera

Causative Agent: Vibrio cholerae bacteria
Transmission: Contaminated water and food
Symptoms:
- Severe watery diarrhea
- Vomiting
- Dehydration
- Muscle cramps
- Rapid pulse
Control Measures:
- Safe drinking water
- Proper sanitation
- Food hygiene
- Oral rehydration therapy (ORT)
- Vaccination in high-risk areas

Typhoid

Causative Agent: Salmonella typhi bacteria
Transmission: Contaminated food and water, poor sanitation
Symptoms:
- High fever
- Headache
- Abdominal pain
- Rose-colored spots on chest
- Constipation or diarrhea
Control Measures:
- Safe water and food practices
- Proper sewage disposal
- Hand washing
- Typhoid vaccination
- Antibiotic treatment

Tuberculosis (TB)

Causative Agent: Mycobacterium tuberculosis bacteria
Transmission: Airborne droplets from infected person
Symptoms:
- Persistent cough (often with blood)
- Chest pain
- Weight loss
- Night sweats
- Fatigue
Control Measures:
- BCG vaccination
- Early detection and treatment
- Isolation of active cases
- Improved nutrition
- Good ventilation
- DOTS (Directly Observed Treatment Short-course)

Viral Diseases

AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome)

Causative Agent: HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus)
Transmission: Blood, sexual contact, mother to child, contaminated needles
Symptoms:
- Weakened immune system
- Opportunistic infections
- Weight loss
- Fatigue
- Swollen lymph nodes
Control Measures:
- Safe sexual practices
- Blood screening
- Avoiding sharing needles
- Antiretroviral therapy (ART)
- Education and awareness

Chicken Pox

Causative Agent: Varicella-zoster virus
Transmission: Airborne droplets, direct contact
Symptoms:
- Itchy skin rash with blisters
- Fever
- Headache
- Fatigue
Control Measures:
- Vaccination
- Isolation of infected individuals
- Maintaining hygiene
- Antiviral medications

Hepatitis

Causative Agents: Hepatitis A, B, C, D, E viruses
Transmission: Varies by type (contaminated food/water, blood, sexual contact)
Symptoms:
- Jaundice (yellowing of skin and eyes)
- Fatigue
- Abdominal pain
- Dark urine
- Loss of appetite
Control Measures:
- Vaccination (for Hepatitis A and B)
- Safe food and water practices
- Blood screening
- Safe injection practices

Protozoan Diseases

Malaria

Causative Agent: Plasmodium species (P. vivax, P. falciparum, P. malariae, P. ovale)
Transmission: Female Anopheles mosquito bite
Symptoms:
- High fever with chills
- Sweating
- Headache
- Nausea and vomiting
- Anemia
Control Measures:
- Mosquito control (eliminate breeding sites)
- Use of bed nets
- Antimalarial drugs
- Indoor residual spraying
- Early diagnosis and treatment

Amoebic Dysentery

Causative Agent: Entamoeba histolytica
Transmission: Contaminated food and water
Symptoms:
- Bloody diarrhea
- Abdominal cramps
- Fever
- Mucus in stool
Control Measures:
- Safe drinking water
- Proper sanitation
- Food hygiene
- Hand washing
- Antiprotozoal medications

Sleeping Sickness

Causative Agent: Trypanosoma species
Transmission: Tsetse fly bite
Symptoms:
- Fever and headache
- Joint pains
- Sleep disturbances
- Behavioral changes
- Eventually coma
Control Measures:
- Vector control
- Protective clothing
- Early diagnosis and treatment
- Surveillance programs

Helminthic Diseases

Ascariasis

Causative Agent: Ascaris lumbricoides (roundworm)
Transmission: Ingesting eggs from contaminated soil, food, or water
Symptoms:
- Abdominal pain
- Nausea
- Coughing
- Intestinal obstruction (severe cases)
Control Measures:
- Proper sanitation
- Hand washing
- Safe food practices
- Deworming programs
- Anthelmintic drugs

Taeniasis

Causative Agent: Taenia species (tapeworms)
Transmission: Eating undercooked infected meat
Symptoms:
- Abdominal pain
- Weight loss
- Nausea
- Segments of worm in stool
Control Measures:
- Proper cooking of meat
- Meat inspection
- Good hygiene
- Anthelmintic treatment

Filariasis

Causative Agent: Wuchereria bancrofti, Brugia malayi
Transmission: Mosquito bite (Culex, Aedes, Anopheles)
Symptoms:
- Lymphatic swelling
- Elephantiasis (chronic cases)
- Fever
- Pain in affected areas
Control Measures:
- Mosquito control
- Mass drug administration
- Use of bed nets
- Lymphatic care

(iv) Aids to Health: Immunity and Medical Interventions

Types of Immunity

Active Immunity

Immunity developed by the body's own immune system in response to antigens.

Natural Active Immunity:

Acquired after recovering from a disease
Long-lasting protection
Example: Immunity after chickenpox

Artificial Active Immunity:

Acquired through vaccination
Vaccines contain weakened or killed pathogens
Example: Polio vaccine, MMR vaccine

Passive Immunity

Immunity acquired from external sources without the body producing its own antibodies.

Natural Passive Immunity:

Antibodies transferred from mother to baby through placenta or breast milk
Temporary protection
Example: Newborn immunity to measles

Artificial Passive Immunity:

Injection of ready-made antibodies (antiserum)
Immediate but short-term protection
Example: Anti-snake venom

Medical Interventions

Vaccination

Purpose: Stimulate active immunity against specific diseases
Mechanism: Introduction of weakened/killed pathogens or their components
Examples: BCG (tuberculosis), DPT (diphtheria, pertussis, tetanus), MMR (measles, mumps, rubella)
Benefits: Prevention of diseases, community immunity (herd immunity)

Immunization

Definition: Process of making a person immune to disease
Methods: Vaccination, natural infection recovery
Importance: Disease prevention, epidemic control

Antitoxin

Purpose: Neutralize specific toxins produced by bacteria
Source: Antibodies from immunized animals or humans
Examples: Diphtheria antitoxin, tetanus antitoxin
Action: Immediate neutralization of toxins

Serum

Definition: Blood plasma containing antibodies
Types: Antiserum (specific antibodies), convalescent serum
Uses: Treatment of infectious diseases, passive immunization
Examples: Anti-snake bite serum, anti-rabies serum

Antiseptics

Purpose: Prevent infection by inhibiting growth of microorganisms
Use: Applied to living tissues (skin, wounds)
Examples: Iodine, hydrogen peroxide, alcohol, Dettol
Action: Bacteriostatic or bactericidal on living tissues

Disinfectants

Purpose: Kill or inactivate microorganisms
Use: Applied to non-living surfaces and objects
Examples: Bleach, phenol, formalin, UV radiation
Action: Destruction of pathogens on inanimate objects

Antibiotics

Purpose: Treat bacterial infections
Mechanism: Kill bacteria or inhibit their growth
Examples: Penicillin, streptomycin, tetracycline, amoxicillin
Important Notes:
- Effective only against bacteria, not viruses
- Must complete prescribed course
- Overuse leads to antibiotic resistance

Local Defense System

Components and Functions

Skin: First barrier against pathogens
Mucous membranes: Trap and expel foreign particles
Stomach acid: Kills ingested bacteria
White blood cells: Identify and destroy invaders
Inflammatory response: Localizes infection and promotes healing

Merits of Local Defense System

Immediate response: Provides instant protection
Non-specific protection: Works against various pathogens
Memory function: Recognizes previously encountered pathogens
Cost-effective: Body's natural defense mechanism
Adaptable: Responds to new and changing threats

Difference Between Antiseptics and Disinfectants

Aspect	Antiseptics	Disinfectants
Application	Living tissues	Non-living surfaces
Concentration	Lower (gentler)	Higher (stronger)
Toxicity	Less toxic to cells	More toxic
Examples	Iodine, Dettol	Bleach, phenol
Purpose	Prevent infection	Kill microorganisms
Use on humans	Safe for external use	Not safe for living tissue

(v) Health Organizations

Red Cross

Major Activities

Emergency Response: Disaster relief, emergency medical services
Blood Services: Blood collection, processing, and distribution
Health and Safety Training: First aid, CPR, water safety education
International Humanitarian Law: Promoting and protecting humanitarian principles
Community Health Programs: Disease prevention, health education
Support for Armed Forces: Assistance to military personnel and families
Restoring Family Links: Helping separated families reconnect during conflicts
Hospital and Community Services: Operating hospitals, clinics, and health centers

Principles

Humanity, impartiality, neutrality, independence, voluntary service, unity, universality

World Health Organization (WHO)

Major Activities

Disease Control and Prevention:

Global disease surveillance systems
Epidemic and pandemic response coordination
Immunization programs (polio eradication, measles control)
Control of communicable diseases (tuberculosis, HIV/AIDS, malaria)

Health Policy and Standards:

Setting international health standards
Developing health policies and guidelines
Health system strengthening
Universal health coverage promotion

Research and Development:

Health research coordination
Evidence-based medicine promotion
Drug and vaccine development support
Health technology assessment

Emergency Response:

International health emergency coordination
Rapid response teams deployment
Health emergency preparedness
Disease outbreak investigation

Health Information:

Global health statistics collection
Health trend monitoring and reporting
Technical assistance to countries
Health education and promotion

Capacity Building:

Training healthcare professionals
Strengthening laboratory networks
Supporting health infrastructure development
Technical cooperation with member states

Key Programs

Expanded Program on Immunization (EPI): Childhood vaccination programs
Global Health Security: Pandemic preparedness and response
Sustainable Development Goals: Health-related target achievement
Universal Health Coverage: Ensuring health services accessibility
Non-communicable Disease Prevention: Addressing chronic diseases globally

Summary Points for Examination

Key Concepts to Remember:

Personal vs. Public Hygiene: Individual practices vs. community efforts
Disease Classification: Communicable/non-communicable, endemic/epidemic/pandemic/sporadic
Transmission Modes: Airborne, waterborne, vector-borne with specific examples
Disease Categories: Bacterial, viral, protozoan, helminthic with symptoms and control measures
Immunity Types: Active (natural/artificial) vs. Passive (natural/artificial)
Medical Interventions: Clear understanding of vaccination, immunization, antiseptics, disinfectants, antibiotics
Health Organizations: Major activities of Red Cross and WHO

Important Distinctions:

Antiseptics vs. Disinfectants
Active vs. Passive immunity
Endemic vs. Epidemic vs. Pandemic
Vaccination vs. Immunization

Control Measures Pattern:

Most diseases can be controlled through:

Prevention (hygiene, vaccination, vector control)
Early detection and treatment
Public health measures (sanitation, education)
Medical intervention (drugs, sera, antitoxins)

Question-Answer Section

1 Mark Questions

Q1. Define personal hygiene. A1. Personal hygiene refers to the practices that individuals follow to maintain cleanliness and health of their bodies.

Q2. What is a communicable disease? A2. A communicable disease is one that can spread from one person to another through various means.

Q3. Give one example of an endemic disease. A3. Malaria in tropical regions.

Q4. Name the vector for malaria transmission. A4. Female Anopheles mosquito.

Q5. What is active immunity? A5. Active immunity is immunity developed by the body's own immune system in response to antigens.

Q6. Give one example of an antiseptic. A6. Iodine or Dettol.

Q7. Name the causative agent of cholera. A7. Vibrio cholerae bacteria.

Q8. What does WHO stand for? A8. World Health Organization.

Q9. Define pandemic disease. A9. A pandemic disease is one that spreads across multiple countries or continents, affecting large numbers of people worldwide.

Q10. Give one example of airborne transmission. A10. Tuberculosis or Common cold.

Q11. Name one helminthic disease. A11. Ascariasis.

Q12. What is the main function of vaccination? A12. To stimulate active immunity against specific diseases.

Q13. Give one example of passive immunity. A13. Antibodies transferred from mother to baby through breast milk.

Q14. Name the causative agent of AIDS. A14. HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus).

Q15. What is the difference between antiseptics and disinfectants in terms of application? A15. Antiseptics are applied to living tissues while disinfectants are applied to non-living surfaces.

2 Mark Questions

Q1. Differentiate between endemic and epidemic diseases. A1.

Endemic diseases: Constantly present in a particular geographic area (e.g., malaria in tropical regions)
Epidemic diseases: Spread rapidly affecting many people simultaneously in a community (e.g., seasonal flu outbreaks)

Q2. List four practices of personal hygiene. A2.

Regular bathing and hand washing
Dental care (brushing teeth twice daily)
Clean clothing and footwear
Proper nail trimming and hair care

Q3. Name two modes of transmission with one example each. A3.

Airborne transmission: Tuberculosis
Waterborne transmission: Cholera

Q4. State two symptoms of malaria. A4.

High fever with chills
Headache and sweating

Q5. Distinguish between active and passive immunity. A5.

Active immunity: Body produces its own antibodies (e.g., after vaccination)
Passive immunity: Ready-made antibodies from external source (e.g., mother to baby)

Q6. List two control measures for tuberculosis. A6.

BCG vaccination
Early detection and treatment

Q7. Name two bacterial diseases with their causative agents. A7.

Cholera: Vibrio cholerae
Typhoid: Salmonella typhi

Q8. State two major activities of WHO. A8.

Global disease surveillance and epidemic response
Setting international health standards

Q9. Give two examples of vectors with diseases they transmit. A9.

Mosquito: Malaria, dengue
Housefly: Cholera, typhoid

Q10. List two symptoms of cholera. A10.

Severe watery diarrhea
Vomiting and dehydration

Q11. State two differences between antiseptics and disinfectants. A11.

Application: Antiseptics on living tissues, disinfectants on non-living surfaces
Concentration: Antiseptics have lower concentration, disinfectants have higher concentration

Q12. Name two viral diseases with their symptoms. A12.

Chicken pox: Itchy skin rash with blisters, fever
Hepatitis: Jaundice, fatigue

Q13. List two control measures for malaria. A13.

Use of bed nets
Elimination of mosquito breeding sites

Q14. State two components of public hygiene. A14.

Proper waste disposal systems
Clean water supply

Q15. Give two examples of non-communicable diseases. A15.

Diabetes
Heart disease

3 Mark Questions

Q1. Explain three types of disease classification based on spread patterns. A1.

Communicable diseases: Can spread from person to person through various means (e.g., tuberculosis, malaria)
Non-communicable diseases: Cannot be transmitted between people, often due to lifestyle or genetic factors (e.g., diabetes, cancer)
Endemic diseases: Constantly present in specific geographic areas at predictable rates (e.g., goiter in iodine-deficient areas)

Q2. Describe three modes of disease transmission with examples. A2.

Airborne transmission: Disease spreads through air via droplets from coughing/sneezing (e.g., tuberculosis, COVID-19)
Waterborne transmission: Pathogens spread through contaminated water sources (e.g., cholera, typhoid)
Vector-borne transmission: Disease carried by living organisms like mosquitoes carrying malaria, flies transmitting cholera

Q3. Explain the symptoms and control measures of cholera. A3. Symptoms: Severe watery diarrhea, vomiting, dehydration, muscle cramps, rapid pulse Control measures: Safe drinking water, proper sanitation, food hygiene, oral rehydration therapy (ORT), vaccination in high-risk areas

Q4. Differentiate between active and passive immunity with examples. A4. Active Immunity:

Body produces its own antibodies
Long-lasting protection
Example: Immunity after vaccination or disease recovery

Passive Immunity:

Ready-made antibodies from external source
Temporary protection
Example: Mother's antibodies to baby, anti-snake venom injection

Q5. Describe three major activities of the Red Cross. A5.

Emergency Response: Provides disaster relief and emergency medical services during natural disasters and conflicts
Blood Services: Collects, processes, and distributes blood for medical use in hospitals and emergency situations
Health Education: Conducts first aid, CPR, and water safety training programs for communities

Q6. Explain the symptoms and transmission of tuberculosis. A6. Symptoms: Persistent cough often with blood, chest pain, weight loss, night sweats, fatigue Transmission: Airborne droplets released when infected person coughs, sneezes, or talks Additional info: Affects lungs primarily but can spread to other organs

Q7. List three differences between antiseptics and disinfectants. A7.

Application: Antiseptics used on living tissues; disinfectants on non-living surfaces
Concentration: Antiseptics have lower, gentler concentration; disinfectants have higher, stronger concentration
Safety: Antiseptics safe for human contact; disinfectants not safe for living tissue contact

Q8. Describe three control measures for malaria prevention. A8.

Vector control: Eliminate mosquito breeding sites by removing stagnant water, using larvicides
Personal protection: Use of insecticide-treated bed nets, wearing protective clothing
Medical intervention: Early diagnosis and treatment with antimalarial drugs, chemoprophylaxis for travelers

Q9. Explain three major activities of WHO. A9.

Disease Control: Global surveillance, epidemic response coordination, immunization programs like polio eradication
Health Standards: Setting international health guidelines, developing policies, promoting universal health coverage
Emergency Response: Coordinating international health emergencies, deploying rapid response teams, pandemic preparedness

Q10. Describe the symptoms and control of typhoid fever. A10. Symptoms: High fever, severe headache, abdominal pain, rose-colored spots on chest, constipation or diarrhea Control measures: Safe water and food practices, proper sewage disposal, hand washing, typhoid vaccination, antibiotic treatment

Q11. Explain three aspects of public hygiene and their importance. A11.

Waste disposal: Proper sewage systems prevent contamination of water sources and reduce disease transmission
Water supply: Clean, safe drinking water prevents waterborne diseases like cholera and typhoid
Food safety: Regulations ensure proper food handling, storage, and preparation to prevent foodborne illnesses

Q12. Describe the role of different vectors in disease transmission. A12.

Mosquitoes: Female Anopheles transmits malaria, Aedes spreads dengue and chikungunya
Houseflies: Contaminate food with bacteria causing cholera, typhoid, and dysentery
Cockroaches: Spread bacteria through food contamination, causing gastroenteritis and food poisoning

Q13. Explain natural and artificial active immunity. A13. Natural Active Immunity:

Developed after recovering from actual disease
Body's immune system creates antibodies naturally
Long-lasting, often lifelong protection (e.g., chickenpox immunity)

Artificial Active Immunity:

Acquired through vaccination with weakened/killed pathogens
Stimulates immune system without causing disease
Provides long-term protection (e.g., polio, MMR vaccines)

Q14. Describe three helminthic diseases with their control measures. A14.

Ascariasis: Caused by roundworms, controlled through proper sanitation, hand washing, deworming programs
Taeniasis: Caused by tapeworms, controlled by proper meat cooking, meat inspection, good hygiene
Filariasis: Transmitted by mosquitoes, controlled through mosquito control, mass drug administration, bed nets

Q15. Explain the local defense system and its merits. A15. Components: Skin barrier, mucous membranes, stomach acid, white blood cells, inflammatory response Merits:

Immediate response to threats
Non-specific protection against various pathogens
Memory function for recognizing previous invaders
Cost-effective natural defense mechanism

Health and Hygiene

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